UC-NRLF 


257    bflb 


liiii! 

•rrx  *-••'>  vfc~?r\^  -"\Qf-  'V     "-  '• 

•l' ,.    ,:\  '.J'.^i  (//mS.j>_f5Q   •      •    . 

4"lr^%C)'r1-.>,  />;^.     ;  ') 


•_ 

SSStt 

scSRSKo 


GIFT  OF  _ 
Daughter  of 

William  Stuart  Smith 


jlttecc  ctf  tje  3EngSfe8>  language* 


PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR: 

IN  WHICH 

WORDS,  PHRASES,  AND  SENTENCES 

ABB 

CLASSIFIED  ACCORDING  TO  THEIR   OFFICES; 

AKD 

THEIR  VARIOUS  RELATIONS  TO  ONE  ANOTHER, 

ILLUSTRATED    BY    A    COMPLETE    SYSTEM    OF    DIAGRAMS. 


M  Speech  is  the  body  of  thought.1 » 


BY  S.  W.  CLARK,  A.M., 

P  R  I  N  C  I  P  A  Ii    OP     CbBTLAND    ACADBMT, 

AUTHOR  OP  "FIRST  LESSONS  IN  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR,"  "ANALYSIS  OP  THE  ENGLISH 

LANGUAGE,"    "  GRAMMATIC  CHART." 
FOETIETH     EDITION,     KEVI8ED. 


NEW  YORK  : 
PUBLISHED    BY    A.    S.    BAKNES    &    BURR, 

CHICAGO  I    GEORGE   SHERWOOD,  118  LAKE  STREET. 
CINCINNATI  :    RICKEY  &   CARROLL.  ST.    LOUIS  :    KEITH  &  WOODS. 

1865. 


ENGLISH   GRAMMAR  AS  A  SCIENCE. 
ENGLISH  GRAMMAR  AS  AN  ART. 


EL  '  & 

ENGLISH  GRAMMARS  AND  ANALYSIS. 


Clark's  First  Lessons  in  English  Grammar.  Design- 
ed for  Beginners,  and  Introductory  to  the  Practical  Grammar. 
By  S.  TV.  CLAEK,  A.M.,  Principal  of  Cortland  Academy.  ISmo, 
half  hound. 

Clark's  T¥ew  English  Grammar.  A  Practical  Grammar, 
in  which  Words,  Phrases,  and  Sentences  are  Classified  according 
to  their  Offices;  and  their  various  Relations  to  each  other,  illus- 
trated by  a  Complete  System  of  Diagrams.  12mo,  cloth 

A  Key  to  Clark's  Grammar,  containing  Diagrams  of  all 
the  Sentences  for  Analysis  and  Parsing  found  in  the  Grammar. 

Clark's  Analysis  of  the  English  ILangwage — with  a 
Complete  Classification  of  Sentences  and  Phrases,  according  to 
their  Grammatic  Structure.  Designed  as  a  Sequel  to  the  En- 
glish Grammar.  12mo,  half  bound. 

Clark's  Grammatie  Chart.  Exhibiting  the  Analysis  of 
Sentences,  the  Analysis  of  Phrases,  the  Classification  and  Modi- 
cation  of  Words.  Mounted.  Price  $2  50. 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1864, 
BY     S.     W.     CLAEK, 

In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States  for  the  Northern 
District  of  New  York. 

r   el?   vM.' 


P.KEFACE. 


THE  GRAMMAR  of  a  Language,  Quintilian  has  justly  remarked,  is  like 
the  foundation  of  a  building — the  most  important  part,  although  out 
of  sight,  and  not  always  properly  valued  by  those  most  interested  in 
its  condition. 

In  the  opinion  of  many  modern  educators,  there  is  a  tendency,  on 
the  part  of  all,  to  neglect  this  important  branch  of  English  Education 
• — not  so  much  from  a  conviction  that  the  science  is  not  important,  as 
that  there  is  a  radical  defect  in  the  common  method  of  presenting  it  to 
the  attention  of  the  learner.  This  was  the  sentiment  of  the  Author 
when,  some  fifteen  years  since,  ne  was  called  to  the  supervision  of  a 
Literary  Institution,  in  which  was  established  a  department  for  the 
education  of  Teachers.  Accordingly,  recourse  was  had  to  oral  instruc- 
tion ;  and,  for  the  convenience  of  Teachers,  a  manuscript  Grammar  was 
prepared,  which  embodied  the  principles  of  the  science  and  the  Author's 
mode  of  presenting  it.  These  principles  and  this  method  have  been 
properly  tested  \jy  numerous  and  advanced  classes  during  the  seven, 
years  last  past.  The  manuscript  has  in  the  mean  time,  from  continued 
additions,  unexpectedly  become  a  book.  It  has  received  the  favorable 
notice  of  Teachers,  and  its  publication  has  been,  by  Teachers,  repeatedly 
solicited.  To  these  solicitations  the  Author  is  constrained  to  yield,  and 
in  the  hope  and  belief  that  the  work  will  * '  add  to  the  stock  of  humau 
knowledge,"  or  at  least  tend  to  that  result,  by  giving  an  increased 
interest  to  the  study  of  the  English  language,  it  is,  with  diffidence, 
submitted  to  the  public. 

In  revising  the  work  for  publication,  an  effort  has  been  made  to 
render  it  simple  in  style,  comprehensive  in  matter — adapted  to  the 
capacities  of  the  younger  pupil,  and  to  the  wants  of  the  more  advanced 
scholar.  It  is  confidently  believed  that  the  METHOD  of  teaching- 
Grammar  herein  suggested,  is  the  true  method.  The  method  adopted 
by  most  text-books  may  be  well  suited  to  the  wants  of  foreigners  in. 
first  learning  our  language.  They  need  first  to  learn  our  Alphabet — 
the  power  and  sounds,  and  the  proper  combinations  of  Letters — the 
definitions  of  words  and  their  classification  according  to  definitions. 


870722 


IV  PKEFACE. 

But  the  American  youth  is  presumed  to  know  all  this,  and  be  able  to 
catch  the  thought  conveyed  by  an  English  Sentence ;  in  fine,  to  be 
able  to  use  practically  the  language,  before  he  attempts  to  study  it  as 
a  science.  Instead,  therefore,  of  beginning  with  the  Alphabet,  and 
wasting  his  energies  on  technical  terms  and  ambiguous  words,  he  should 
be  required  to  deal  with  thought  as  conveyed  by  Sentences.  Accord- 
ingly, this  introduction  to  the  Science  of  Language  begins  with  a 
Sentence,  properly  constructed,  and  investigates  its  structure  by  de- 
veloping the  offices  of  the  Words  which  compose  it ;  making  the  office 
rather  than  the  form  of  a  Word,  determine  the  class  to  which  it 
belongs. 

As  an  important  auxiliary  in  the  Analysis  of  Sentences,  a  system  of 
DIAGRAMS  has  been  invented  and  introduced  in  the  work.  It  is  not 
claimed  for  the  DIAGRAMS  that  they  constitute  any  essential  part  of  the 
Science  of  Language  ;  nor  do  Geometrical  Diagrams  constitute  such  a 
part  of  the  Science  of  Geometry  ;  Maps,  of  Geography  ;  or  Figures,  of 
Arithmetic.  But  it  will  not  be  denied  that  these  are  of  great  service 
in  the  study  of  those  branches.  Experience  has  established  their  im- 
portance. Let,  then,  the  use  of  Diagrams,  reduced  as  they  are  here, 
to  a  complete  system,  be  adopted  in  the  Analysis  of  Sentences,  and 
their  utility  will  become  as  obvious  in  the  Science  of  Language,  as  it  is 
in  the  science  of  Magnitude  ;  and  for  precisely  the  same  reason,  that 
an  abstract  truth  is  made  tangible  ;  the  eye  is  permitted  to  assist  the 
mind  ;  the  memorr  is  relieved,  that  the  judgment  may  have  full 
charter  of  all  the  mental  powers. 

Conscious  that  novelty,  as  such,  should  not  bear  sway  in  the  inves- 
tigations of  Science,  the  Author  has  been  careful,  neither  to  depart 
from  the  ordinary  method  of  presenting  the  Science,  for  the  sake  of 
novelty,  nor,  from  dread  of  novelty,  to  reject  manifest  improvements. 
The  old  Nomenclature  is  retained,  not  because  a  better  could  not  be 
proposed,  but  because  the  advantages  to  be  gained  would  not  compen- 
sate for  the  confusion  necessarily  consequent  to  such  a  change.  But 
the  terms  purely  technical  have  been  introduced  as  a  natural  inference 
from  fads  previously  deduced.  Principles  and  Definitions  are  preceded  by 
such  liemarks  as  have  fully  established  their  propriety.  The  inductive 
method  of  arriving  at  truth  has  been  followed  throughout — with  that 
it  stands  or  falls. 


ADVERTISEMENT 

TO    THE    FIFTEENTH    EDITION. 


IN  sending  forth  this  revised  Edition  of  the  PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR,  the 
Author  takes  occasion  to  render  acknowledgments  to  his  numerous 
professional  brethren  who  have  so  favorably  received  the  former 
editions,  and  also  to  express  his  gratitude  for  the  various  criticisms 
which  its  use  has  suggested.  Especially  is- he  gratified  that,  with  frank 
and  faithful  notices  of  the  omissions  and  defects  in  the  former  Editions, 
there  has  been  a  unanimous  approval  of  the  SYSTEM  and  METHOD  herein 
adopted.  Accordingly,  the  work  has-  been  rewritten  upon  the  basis  of 
the  former  Edition. 

In  making  the  revision,  an  effort  has  been  made  to  perfect  the  work 
in  all  its  parts— to  supply  defects — to  simplify  the  arrangement — to 
bring  the  various  parts  more  fully  in  harmony  with  the  system — and 
to  adapt  it  more  completely  to  Class  Exercises. 

To  Part  I.  important  Additions  have  been  made ;  the  Elements  of 
Sentences  have  "been  discussed  more  fully,  and  the  DIAGRAMS  are  made 
to  render  the  Analysis  of  Sentences  more  perspicuous.  ANALYSIS  dis- 
closes to  the  Student  the  right  use  of  Words,  according  to  established 
custom,  thus  furnishing  the  only  appropriate  key  to  the  true  Etymology 
of  the  Language. 

In  Part  II.  ETYMOLOGY  is  so  presented  as  to  furnish  a  proper  founda- 
tion for  Syntax ;  the  several  materials  are  adapted  to  their  various 
positions  in  the  structure  to  be  reared. 

In  Part  III.  careful  attention  has  been  given  to  make  the  other 
branches  of  the  Science  of  Language  subserve  SYNTAX  and  harmonize 
with  it.  In  this  effort  consists  the  great  improvement  in  the  Grammar 
as  now  presented ;  the  Analytical  is  made  to  accompany  the  Syn- 
thetical. 

Exercises  in  CRITICISM  are  inserted,  in  which  common  erro*rs  are 
noticed  and  corrected  by  proper  references  to  Rules,  Notes,  and  Obser- 
vations in  the  text. 

The  extensive  and  constantly  increasing  circulation  of  the  original 
work,  encourages  the  hope  that,  with  its  present  improvements,  it  will 
secure  the  desired  approbation  of  p,  discerning  public. 

COKTLAND  ACADEMY,  HOMER,  If,  Y. 

J* 


THE   GRAMMATIC   CHART. 


THIS  CHART  presents,  at  one  view,  the  entire  Etymology  of  the 
English  language.  It  is  useful  chiefly  in  reviews  and  in  etymological 
parsing. 

The  large  edition  of  the  Chart  may  be  used  more  profitably,  as,  with 
it,  the  whole  class  may  follow  the  reciting  pupil — all  having  their 
attention  directed  to  the  same  thing,  at  the  same  time.  In  the 
absence  of  a  large  Chart,  the  small  ones  may  be  used — each  student 
using  his  own. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  Chart  does  not  give  the  Definitions  of  the 
Classes  and  Modifications  of  words  ;  but  simply  presents  the  principles 
of  Etymology ;  showing,  for  example, 

That  a  "  Sentence"  consists  of  "  Principal  Elements,"  and  may  have 
"Adjuncts."  That  the  Principal  Elements  of  a  Sentence  must  be  a 
"SUBJECT,"  a  "PREDICATE,"  and  (if  Transitive)  an  "OBJECT."  That 
the  Subject  may  be  a  "  WORD,"  a  "  PHRASE,"  or  a  "  SENTENCE."  That 
if  the  Subject  is  a  Word,  it  is  a  "  NOUN"  or  "  PRONOUN" — if  a  Noun,  it  is 
"COMMON"  or  "PROPER" — if  a  Pronoun,  it  is  "  PERSONAL,"  "  EELATIVE," 
"  INTERROGATIVE,"  or  "  ADJECTIVE."  That  the  Noun  or  Pronoun  must 
be  of  the  "NEUTER,"  "FEMININE,"  or  "MASCULINE"  Gender— of  ihe 
"FIRST,"  "SECOND,"  or  "THIRD"  Person — of  the  "SINGULAR"  or 
"  PLURAL'  '  Number — and  that  it  must  be  in  the  ' '  NOMINATIVE'  '  Case. 

If  the  Subject  is  a  "Phrase,"  it  is  a  "SUBSTANTIVE"  Phrase — and  may 
be  (inform)  "PREPOSITIONAL,"  "PARTICIPIAL,"  "INFINITIVE,"  or  "IN- 
DEPENDENT"— and  may  be  "TRANSITIVE"  or  " INTRANSITIVE. " 

If  the  Subject  is  a  "  Sentence,"  it  is  a  "  SUBSTANTIVE"  Sentence — and 
maybe  "SIMPLE"  or  "COMPOUND,"  "TRANSITIVE"  or  "INTRANSITIVE." 

Thus,  a  comparison  of  the  Chart  wit-k  the  General  Principles,  on 
pages  175-180,  will  readily  suggest  to  the  skillful  Teacher  the  proper 
method  of  using  it  in  review. 

The  proper  use  of  the  Chart  in  Etymological  Parsing  is  illustrated  by 
EXERCISES,  pp.  181-186. 


CONTENTS. 


PART  I. 

riGB 

INTRODUCTORY  EXERCISES 11 

GENERAL  DEFINITIONS. 

LANGUAGE — Spoken —  Written 15 

GRAMMAR — General — Particular 15 

ELEMENTS  OF  LANGUAGE— Letters —  Wards— Phrases — Sentences 16 

WORDS — Classification 17 

PHRASES — Classification , 19 

"  '  OFFICES— Substantive 19 

11  '  "         Adjective 19 

"  '  "         Adverbial 20 

' '         Independent 20 

"  '  FORMS— Prepositional 20 

•"  *  "        Infinitive 20 

"  '  "         Participial 21 

"        Independent 21 

"        Analysis 21 

SENTENCES — Analysis 23 

"  "       Principal  Elements 25 

"  *'       Adjunct  Elements 27 

"  "       Exejcises 29 

'  *  Questions  for  Review 35 

"  DIAGRAMS — General  Rules 36 

1 '  Classification 38 

"  Questions  for  Review 47 

"  EXERCISES  IN  ANALYSIS. 

1 '  Simple — Intransitive 48 

"  "        Transitive 50 

"  Compound       "      51 

"  "         Mixed 56 

"  Complex 57 


viii  CLARK'S  GRAMMAR. 

PAKT  II. 

ETYMOLOGY. 

PAGl 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  WORDS — their  Forms 69 

"     Uses 73 

NOUNS — Classification 73 

"       Modification 75 

"  "  Gender 76 

"  "  Person 78 

"  "  Number 78 

Gate 82 

PRONOUNS — Classification 88 

"  "  Personal 88 

"  "  Relative 91 

"  "  Interrogative 92 

"  "  Adjective 93 

Recapitulation 95 

ADJECTIVES— Classification 97 

"  Modification 101 

*  *  Exercises  .  .*. 103 

VERBS — Classification 107 

11        Modifications—  Voice 108 

Mode ; 109 

"  "  PARTICIPLES Ill 

"  "  Tense 115 

"        Recapitulation .117 

"        Conjugation 120 

"        Review 139 

"        Irregular— List 140 

"        Unipersonal 143 

ADVERBS 149 

"        Classification ? 151 

"        Modification 153 

PREPOSITIONS — List 156 

Exercises 160 

CONJUNCTIONS — List 162 

Exercises 164 

EXCLAMATIONS 165 

WORDS  OF  EUPHONY 166 

Words  varying  in  their  Etymology 167 

4 «  "  "  Observations 170 


CONTENTS.  IX 

PART  HI. 

SYNTAX. 

PAOB 

ELEMENTS  or  SENTENCES— Analysis 175 

"  PHRASES  '"         178 

Exercises  by  the  CHART — Sentences 181 

"  "          "        Phrases 185 

EULE  1.— The  SUBJECT  o£  a  Sentence 186 

Word 187 

"  "  "          Phrase 190 

"  "  "          Sentence 191 

RULE  2. — THE  PREDICATE 194 

"         THE  VERB 195 

"  "        Number , 195 

"  "         Person 197 

"  "         Mode  and  Tense 200 

«  Voice 201 

"  "        Exercises 204 

RULE  3.— THE  OBJECT—  Word 208 

"  Phrase 213 

"  "  Sentence 215 

"  "  Exercises 217 

RULE  4. — PRONOUNS—  Personal 219 

"  "  Relative 221 

"  "  Interrogative 224 

RULE  5. — PRONOUNS — Adjective 225 

Exercises 228 

RULE  6. — INDEPENDENT  CASE 229 

ADJUNCTS 232 

RULE  7.— ADJECTIVES 235 

Qualifying 239 

"  "          Specifying 240 

RULE  8.  "          Possessive 242 

in  Predicate 247 

RULE  9. — ADVERBS 253 

RULE  10.— PARTICIPLES — as  Nouns 260 

as  Adjectives 264 

"  "  as  Adverbs 265 

"  "  as  Prepositions 265 

18  "  in  Predicate 265 

"  "  Exercises..  ..267 


x  CLARK'S  GRAMMAR.  " 

PAO* 

RULE  11. — INFINITIVE  VERB 267 

"  "  Phrase 269 

RULE  12,  — PREPOSITIONS 270 

RULE  13. — CONJUNCTIONS 273 

RULE  14. — EXCLAMATIONS 277 

Words  of  EUPHONY , * 278 

GENERAL  RULES 279 

Recapitulation  of  the  Rules  of  Syntax 280 


PART   IY. 

! 

PROSODY. 

MARKS  or  PUNCTUATION » 282 

GRAMMATICAL  AND  RHETORICAL  SIGNS 288 

COMPOSITION — Prose —  Verse 291 

VERSIFICATION 294 

FIGURES 298 

"       Grammatical 299 

' '       Rhetorico-Grammatical 300 

"      Rhetorical..  ..301 


APPENDIX. 

LETTERS — Their  Forms,  Roman,  Italic,  Old  English 305 

"  "  Capitals 306 

"         Their  Offices 308 

"         Abbreviations < . .  309 


CLARK'S   GRAM! 


PUBLISHED   BY   A.  S.  BARNE 


:MATIC  CHART. 


.««£ 


X* 


,NES  &  BURR-NEW  YORK. 


PART  I. 

INTRODUCTORY  EXERCISES. 


* '  God  moves  in  a  mysterious  way, 

His  wonders  to  perform  ; 
He  plants  his  footsteps  in  the  sea 
And  rides  upon  the  storm." 

Quest .    Of  whom  is  something  asserted  in  the  lines  above  -written  ? 
Ans.  Something  is  said  concerning  " God" 

What  is  said  of  God  ? 
A.  God  " moves" 

How  does  God  move  ? 
A.  " In  a  mysterious  way" 

"  God  moves  in  a  mysterious  way" — why  9 
A.  "  To  perform,  his  wonders" 

Concerning  whom  is  something  more  said  ? 
A.  Something  more  is  said  concerning  "  God."      > 

Why  do  you  think  so  ? 
A.  Because,  in  this  connection,  "  He"  means  God. 

What  more  is  said  of  God  ? 
A.  He  "plants? 
0     He  plants  what  9 
A.  He  plants  "footsteps" 

He  plants  what  footsteps  ? 
A.  "  His"  footsteps. 


12  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR PART   I. 

He  pi  ante  his  footsteps—  where  9 
A.  " In  the  sea"  ( 

What  nor*  is  said  of  God  ? 

A.  He  "  rwfe«." 

He  rides— where? 
A.  "  ZTpo/i  ZAe  storm" 

In  the  lines  written  above,  what  is  the  use  or  o^zce  of  the  word 

"God"  ? 
-4.  It  is  used  to  tell  who  "  moves." 

What  is  the  use  of  the  word  "  moves''  ? 
A.  To  tell  what  God  does. 

What  is  the  use  of  "  in  a  mysterious  way"  ? 

A.  To  tell  how  God.  moves. 

What  is  the  use  of  * '  his  wonders  to  perform' '  f 
A.  To  tell  for  what  purpose  God  moves. 

What  is  the  use  of  "He"  ? 
A.  To  tell  who  "  plants  footsteps"  and  "  rides." 

What  is  the  use  of  "plants"  f 

A.  To  teU  what  "He"  does. 

What  is  the  use  of  * '  his1 '  f 
A.  To  tell  whose  footsteps. 

What  is  the  use  of  ' ' footsteps' '  f 
A.  To  tell  what  He  plants. 

What  is  the  use  of  ' '  in  the  sea' '  ? 
A.  To  tell  where  He  plants  footsteps. 

What  is  the  use  of  ' '  rides' '  9 
A.  To  teU  what  "  He"  does. 

What  is  the  use  of  "upon  the  storm"  ? 
A.  To  tell  where  He  rides. 

% 

REMARK. — The  young  Pupil  has  seen,  in  this  exposition  of  the  four 
lines  written  above,  that  words  have  meaning ;  and  that  when  they  are 
properly  put  together,  they  convey  the  thoughts  of  the  person  who 
wrote  them,  to  those  who  read  them. 


INTRODUCTORY   EXERCISES.  13 

The  above  may  be  used  as  an  appropriate  MODEL  for  the  following 

ADDITIONAL  EXERCISES  FOR  ANALYSIS. 

1.  "  The  |  sun  \  rose  \  on  the  sea  |  ." 

2.  "  A  |  mist  |  rose  \  slowly  |  from  the  lake  |  .' 

3.  "The  |  night  \  passed  \  away  |  in  song  |  ." 

4.  "Morning  \  returned  \  in  joy  |  .'' 

6.   "The  |  mountains    showed  \  their  |  gray  |  heads  \  ." 

6.  "The  |  blue  \face  \  of  ocean  |  smiled  |  ." 

7.  "Day  \  declines  \  ." 

8.  "Hollow  |  winds  \  are  \  in  the  |  pines  |  ." 

9.  "Darkly  |  moves  \  each  |  giant  |  bough,  \ 

O'er  the  sky's  last  crimson  glow  |  ." 

10.  "  Nature's  |  richest  |  dyes  \ 
Are  floating  \  o'er  Italian  skies." 

11.  "A  golden  staff  his  steps  supported. ' ' 

12.  "The  dying  notes  still  murmur  on  the  string." 

13.  "A  purple  robe  his  dying  frame  shall  fold." 

14.  "  At  the  heaving  billows,  stood  the  meager  form  of  Care." 

15.  "  Oft  the  shepherd  called  thee  to  his  flock." 

16.  "The  comely  tear  steals  o'er  the  cheek." 

17.  "  The  storms  of  wintry  Time  will  quicklyj?#ss." 

18.  "Thus  in  some  deep  retirement  would  Ipass 

The  winter-glooms,  with  friends  of  pleasant  soul.' 

19.  "Then  comes  the  father  of  the  tempest  forth, 

Wrapt  in  thick  glooms." 

20.  "Thy  bounty  shines  in  Autumn,  unconfined, 

And  spreads  a  common  feast  for  all  that  live." 

21.  "Some  in  the  fields  of  purest  ether  play, 

And  bask  and  whiten  in  the  blaze  of  day." 

22.  "  On  thy  fair  bosom,  waveless  stream, 

The  dipping  paddle  echoes  far, 
•  And  flashes  in  the  moonlight  gleam." 

23.  "  Who  can  observe  the  careful  ant, 

And  not  provide  for  future  want." 

24.  "  Nature  with  folded  hands  seemed  there, 

Kneeling  at  her  evening  prayer/' 


14:  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR PART   I. 

25.  « '  The  woods 

Threw  their  cool  shadows  freshly  to  the  west." 

26.  *  *  The  clear  dew  is  on  the  blushing  bosoms 

Of  crimson  roses,  in  a  holy  rest." 

27.  "  Spring  calls  out  each  voice  of  the  deep  blue  sky." 

28.  "  Thou' rt  journeying  to  thy  spirit's  home, 

Where  the  skies  are  ever  clear. ' ' 

29.  "  A  summer  breeze 
Parts  the  deep  masses  of  the  forest  shade, 
And  lets  a  sunbeam  through." 

30.  "  The  pines  grew  red  with  morning." 

31.  "  Sin  hath  broke  the  world's  sweet  peace — unstrung 

Th'  harmonious  chords  to  which  the  angels  sung." 
S2.  ' '  And  eve,  along  the  western  skies, 
Spreads  her  intermingling  dyes." 

33.  "  The  blooming  morning  oped  her  dewy  eye.11 

34.  ' '  No  marble  marks  thy  couch  of  lowly  sleep  ; 

35.  But  living  statues  there  are  seen  to_weep." 

36.  "  A  distant  torrent  faintly  roars." 

37.  * '  His  gray  locks  slowly  waved  in  the  wind, 

And  glittered  to  the  beam  of  night." 

38.  "  Oft  did  the  harvest  to  their  sickle  yield" 

39.  "  Their  furrow  oft  the  stubborn  glebe  has  broke." 

40.  "How  jocund  did  they  drive  their  team  afield !" 

41.  "  How  bowed  the  woods  beneath  their  sturdy  stroke !" 

42.  "  The  breezy  call  of  incense-breathing  morn, 

The  swallow,  twittering  from  the  straw-built  shed, 
The  cock's  shrill  clarion,  or  the  echoing  horn, 
No  more  shall  rouse  them  from  their  lowly  bed." 


LANGUAGE GRAMMAR.  15 

LANGUAGE. 

DEFINITION  1. — Language  is  any  means  of  communi- 
cating thought,  feeling,  or  purpose. 

OBS.  1. — Thoughts  and  feelings  are  indicated — 

1.  By  certain  expressions  of  the  features,  by  gestures,  and  by  other 
physical  acts.     This  is  called  Natural  Language. 

2.  By  articulate  sounds,  or  by  written  characters.     This  is  called  Arti- 
ficial Language. 

OBS.  2. — Natural  language  is  common  to  all  intelligent  beings,  and 
is  understood  by  all  without  previous  instruction. — Smiling,  frowning, 
laughing,  weeping,  are  instances  of  natural  language. 

OBS.  3. — Artificial  language  is  invented  by  men. — Sounds  are  made 
to  indicate  thoughts  by  mutual  or  common  consent.  Generally,  each 
nation  has  its  peculiar  language. 

PRINCIPLE. — Artificial  Language  is 

SPOKEN  and  WRITTEN. 

DEF.  2. — Spoken  Language  consists  in  vocal  sounds, 
indicative  of  thought,  of  feeling,  or  of  purpose. 

DEF.  3. —  Written  Language  consists  in  artificial  charac- 
ters, so  arranged  and  combined  as,  by  common  consent,  to 
represent  thought  or  emotion. 

HEM. — It  is  customary  to  give  to  every  science  a  name,  by  which  it 
*nay  be  distinguished  from  other  sciences ;  accordingly,  people  have 
agreed  to  call  the  science  which  treats  of  Language 

GEAMMAK. 

DEF,  4. —  Grammar  is  the  science  of  Language. 

OBS.  1. — There  are  certain  General  Principles  of  Grammar  which  are 
common  to  all  languages. — Hence  the  term  GENERAL  GRAMMAR. 

OBS.  2. — But  each  particular  language  has  some  idioms  and  forms  of 
construction  peculiar  to  itself.— Hence  the  term  PARTICULAR  GRAMMAR. 

HEM. — Every  Particular  Grammar  should  include  all  the  principles  of 
General  Grammar. 


16  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR PART   I. 

DEF.  5  (a). — English  Grammar  is  the  Science  which 
investigates  the  principles,  and  determines  the  proper  con- 
struction of  the  English  language. 

(b). — ENGLISH  GRAMMAR  is  the  art  of  communicating 
thought  in  appropriate  words. 

REM. — The  articulate  sounds  of  language  are  indicated  by  Letters. 

DEF.  6. — A  Letter  is  a  character  used  to  indicate  a 
sound,  or  to  modify  the  sound  of  another  letter. 
EXAMPLES. — A  in  hat,  hate,  hall,  hart. 

OBS. — For  observations  on  the  properties  and  offices  of  Letters,  see 
APPENDIX,  Note  A. 

REM. — Letters  are  combined  to  form  "Words. 

DEF.  7. — A  Word  is  a  Letter,  or  a  combination  of  Let. 
ters,  used  as  the  sign  of  an  idea. 

EXAMPLES  . — God —  mysterious — stood  —slowly — Ah  ! — by — and. 
REM. —  Words  are  combined  to  form  Phrases  and  Sentences. 

DEF.  8. — A  Phrase  is  a  combination  of  words,  not 
constituting  an  entire  proposition,  but  performing  a  dis- 
tinct office  in  the  structure  of  a  Sentence  or  of  another 
Phrase. 

EXAMPLES. — At  midnight,  in  his  guarded  tent, 

The  Turk  was  dreaming  of  the  hour 
When  Greece,  her  knee  in  suppliance  bent, 
Should  tremble  at  his  power-. 

DEFO  9. — A  Sentence  is  an  assemblage  of  words,  so 
combined  as  to  assert  an  entire  proposition. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  Night  approaches. 

2.  Day  is  departing. 

3.  William  is  sleepy. 

4.  Socrates  was  a  philosopher. 

5.  Virtue  secures  happiness. 

6.  John  and  George  have  arrived. 

7.  God  created  the  heaven  and  the  earth. 

8.  "The  dying  notes  still  murmur  on  the  string. " 


, 

WOKD8 — CLASSIFICATION.  17 


WOKDS. 

CLASSIFICATION. 

REMARK. — In  a  Discourse,  words  are  used — 

1 .  As  Names  of  beings,  places,  or  things  ; 

2.  As  Substitutes  for  names  or  facts ; 

3.  As  Qualifiers  or  Limiters  of  names  ; 

4.  To  assert  an  act,  being,  or  state  ; 

5.  To  modify  an  assertion  or  a  quality  ; 

6.  To  express  relations  of  things  or  of  thoughts ; 

7.  To  introduce  or  to  connect  Words  and  Sentences  ; 

8.  To  express  a  sudden  or  an  intense  emotion  ;  or, 

9.  For  Rhetorical  effect. 

Hence,  by  their  uses — 

Words  are  distinguished  as, 


1.  Nouns, 

2.  Pronouns, 

3.  Adjectives, 

4.  Verbs, 


5.  Adverbs, 

6.  Prepositions^ 

7.  Conjunctions, 

8.  Exclamations,  and 


9.    Words  of  Euphony. 

DEF.  10. — A  Word  used  as  the  name  of  a  being,  of  a 
place,  or  of  a  thing,  is  called 

A  Noun. 
EXAMPLES.  —  God  — man — sea — way —  wonders — emotion. 

DEF.  11. — A  Word  used  for  a  Noun,  is  called 

A  Pronoun. 
EXAMPLES.—  I—thou—he—she—it— who— what— that. 

DEF.  12. — A  Word  used  to  qualify,  or  otherwise  limit 
a  Noun  or  a  Pronoun,  is  called 

An  Adjective. 

EXAMPLES.—  Mystmaus  [way]— Ais  [wonders]— tfw  [sea]. 
2* 


18  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR PART   I. 

DEF.  13. — A  Word  used  to  assert  an  act,  being  ^  or  state^ 
of  a  person  or  a  thing,  is  called 
A  Verb. 

EXAMPLES. — [God]  moves— [He]  plants—  [Day]  declines. 

DEF.  14. — A  Word  used  to  modify  the  signification  of  a 
Verb,  an  Adjective,  or  another  Modifier,  is  called 
An  Adverb. 

EXAMPLES. — "A  mist  ROSE  slowly  from  the  lake." 
"The  task  was  exceedingly  DIFFICULT." 
*'  He  came  between  us  very  OFT." 

DEF.  15. — A  Word  used  to  express  a  relation  of  words 
to  each  other,  is  called 

A  Preposition. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  "  At  MIDNIGHT,  in  his  guarded  TENT, 

2.    The  Turk  WAS  DREAMING  of  the  HOUR." 

DEF.  16. — A  Word  used  to  introduce  a  Sentence,  or  to 
connect  Words  and  Phrases,  is  called 
A  Conjunction. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  "  And  I  am  glad  that  he  has  lived  thus  long." 
2.   "  God  created  the  HEAVEN  and  the  EARTH." 

DEF.  17. — A  Word  used  to  Express  a  sudden  or  intense 
emotion,  is  called 

An  Exclamation. 
EXAMPLES. — Alas  ! — oh  ! — shocking  ! 

DEF.  18. — A  Word  used  chiefly  for  the  sake  of  sound^ 
is  called 

A  Word  of  Euphony. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.   "  There  are  no  idlers  here." 

2.  "Now,  then,  we  are  prepared  to  define  our  position." 

3.  "  Even  in  our  ashes  live  their  wonted  fires." 

OBS.— For  observations  on  '    Words  of  Euphony  "  see  Part  II. 


PHRASES CLASSIFICATION.  1 9 

PHRASES. 

CLASSIFICATION. 

REMARK. — Phrases  are  used  as  substitutes  for  Nouns,  Adjectives,  and 
Adverbs ;  or  they  are  independent  in  construction.  Hence,  by  their 
offices, 

Phrases  are  distinguished  as, 


1.  Substantive, 

2.  Adjective^ 


3.  Adverbial, 

4.  Independent. 


DEF.  19. — A  Substantive  Phrase  is  a  phrase  used  as  the 
Subject  or  the  Object  of  a  Verb,  or  the  Object  of  a  Prepo- 
sition. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.   "  To  be,  contents  his  natural  desire." 

2.  "  His  being  a  minister,  prevented  his  rising  to  civil 

power. ' ' 

3.  "I  doubted  his  having  been  a  soldier.'' 

4.  * '  The  crime  of  being  a  young  man,  I  shall  attempt 

neither  to  palliate  nor  deny. ' ' 

What  ' '  contents  his  natural  desire' '  ? 

"  To  be,"—i.  e.,  mere  existence. 

" I  doubted"—  What? 

"  His  having  been  a  soldier/ 

' '  The  crime  of  "  —  What  ? 

*'  Being  a  young  man." 

OBS. — Substantive  Phrases  perform  offices  similar  to  those  of  Nouns 
and  Pronouns. 

•  DEF.  20. — An   Adjective  Phrase  is  a  phrase   used  to 
qualify  or  limit  the  application  of  a  Noun  or  a  Pronoun. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.   "The  time  of  my  departure  is  at  hand." 

2.   "  Forgetting  the  things  that  are  behind,  I  press  forward." 
What  "time"  ? 

"Of  my  departure." 

3;  "  The  dishes  of  luxury  cover  his  table." 
WJtat  "dishes"  ? 

"  Of  luxury." 


20  EHGLISH    GRAMMAR — PART   I. 

DEF.  21. — An  Adverbial  Phrase  is  a  phrase  used  to 
modify  the  signification  of  a  Verb,  of  an  Adjective,  or  of 
an  Adverb. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.   "  God  moves  in  a  mysterious  way.'1 

2.  '  *  He  is  powerful  for  evil — impotent  for  good. ' ' 
"  God  moves" — How  ? 

11  In  a  mysterious  way." 
"  Powerful" — In  what  respect? 
11  For  evil." 

DEF.  22. — An  Independent  Phrase  is  a  phrase  not 
grammatically  connected  with  any  other  element. 

EXAMPLE. — "  The  hour  having  arrived,  we  commenced  the  exercises." 
OBS. — The  office  of  an  Independent  Phrase  is  Logical,  not  Grammati- 
cal. Thus,  in  the  sentence,  ' '  The  hour  having  arrived,  we  commenced 
the  exercises,"  the  phrase  "the  hour  having  arrived,"  indicates  the 
time  of  commencing  the  exercises  ;  but  it  is  not  joined  to  the  word 
"  commenced"  by  any  connecting  word. 

Phrases  are  distinguished  also  by  their  forms,  as, 

1.  Prepositional^  3.  Participial^ 

2.  Infinitive^  4.  Independent. 

DEF.  23. — A  Prepositional  Phrase  is  a  phrase  intro- 
duced by  a  Preposition,  having  a  Noun  or  a  Substitute  as 
its  object  of  relation. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.   "  In  a  mysterious  way. "     "Tome." 

2.   "A  habit  of  moving  quickly  is  another  way  of  gaining 
time. ' ' 

DEF.  24. — An  Infinitive  Phrase  is  a  phrase  introduced 
by  the  Preposition  TO,  having  a  Verb  as  its  object  of 
relation.  ^ 

EXAMPLES.— 1.  "  To  love"—"  To  study"—11  To  be  diligent." 

2.  "We  ought  not  to  be  satisfied  with  present  attain- 

ments.'' 

3.  "  I  sit  me  down  a  pensive  hour  to  spend." 

DEF.  25. — A  Participial  Phrase  is  a  phrase  introduced 
by  a  Participle,  having  an  Object  or  an  Adjunct. 
EXAMPLES. —  "  Scaling  yonder  peak, 

I  saw  an  eagle,  wheeling  near  Us  brow," 


ANALYSIS   OF   PHRASES.  21 

DEF.  26. — An  Independent  Phrase  is  introduced  by  a 
Noun  or  a  Pronoun,  followed  by  a  Participle  depending 
upon  it. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.   "  The  cars  having  left,  we  chartered  a  coach." 
2.  "  Thus  talking,  hand  [being]  in  hand, 

Alone  they  passed  on  to  their  blissful  bower." 

NALYSIS    OF   PHRASES. 

A    -rn  .  ,      />  (  Principal  Elements  and 

A  Phrase  consists  01  •<     .  ,.     z     _7 

(  Adjunct  M,  cements. 

DEF.  27. — The  Principal  Elements  of  a  Phrase  are  the 
words  necessary  to  its  structure. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  "Bays  |  of  limpid  light  \  gleamed  |  round  their 
path  |  ." 

2.  li  Birds  sang  |  amid  the  sprouting  shade  |  ." 

3.  "  Manhood  is  disgraced  |  by  the  consequences  \  of  neg- 

lected youth  |  ." 

DEF.  28. — The  Adjuncts  of  a  Phrase  are  the  words 
used  to  modify  or  limit  the  offices  of  other  words  in  the 
Phrase. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  "  Bays  |  of  limpid  light  |  gleamed  |  round  their 
path  |  ." 

2.  "  Birds  sang  |  amid  the  whispering  shade  |  ." 

3.  "  See  !  Winter  comes  |  to  rule  the  varied  year  |  ." 

4.  "  With  what  an  awful,  world-revolving  power, 

Were  first  the  unwieldy  planets  lanched  along 
The  illimitable  void." 

Principal  Elements  of  a  Phrase  consist  of 
The  Leader  and  the  Subsequent. 

EF.  29. — The  Leader  of  a  Phrase  is  the  word  used  to 
Produce  the  Phrase — generally  connecting  its  Subsequent 
to  the  word  which  the  Phrase  modifies  or  limits. 

EXAMPLES.— 1.   "  Like  a  spirit  |  it  came,  |  in  the  van  |  of  a,  storm  |  ." 

2.  "Enough  remains  |  of  glimmering  light  | 

To  guide  the  wanderer's  steps  aright  |  ." 

3.  "  The  previous  question  being  demanded,  |  the  debato 

closed." 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR — PART   I. 

OBS. — The  Leader  of  a  Phrase  is  commonly  the  first  word  in  position — 
but  not  always;  Adjuncts  may  precede.     [See  the  last  example.] 

The  Leader  of  a  Phrase  may  be 


A  Preposition, 
A  Participle, 


The  Preposition  TO, 
A  Substantive. 


EXAMPLES. — 1.   "  I  am  monarch  of  all  I  survey  ; 

My  right  there  is  none  to  dispute." 

2.  <{  Taking  a  madman's  sword    to  prevent  |  his  doing  mischief,  |  can 
not  he  regarded     AS  robbing  him     . ' ' 

3.  "The  evening  star  having  disappeared,  |  we  returned  to  tha 
castle." 

DEF.  30. — A  Participle  is  a  word  derived  from  a  Verb, 
retaining  the  signification  of  its  verb,  while  it  also  per- 
forms the  office  of  some  other  "  part  of  speech." 

OBS. — For  observations  on  Participles,  see  page  111. 

DEF.  31. — The  Subsequent  of  a  Phrase  is  the  Element 
which  follows  the  Leader  as  its  object  of  action  or  relation^ 
or  which  depends  on  it  in  construction. 

EXAMPLES. — "  At  parting,  \  too,  there  was  a  long  ceremony  |  in  the 
hull,  |  buttoning  up  great-coats,  tying  on  woolen  comforters,  \  fixing  silk 
handkerchiefs  over  the  mouth  and  up  to  the  ears,  and  grasping  sturdy 
walking-canes  to  support  unsteady/^." 


The  Subsequent  of  a  Phrase  may  be, 

A  Word,        |        A  Phrase,         \       A  Sentence. 


EXAMPLES. 

1.  A  Word.—"  Sweet  was  the  sound,  when  oft  |  at  evening's 

Up  yonder  hill  \  the  village  murmur  rose." 

2.  A  Phrase. — "A  habit  |  of  moving  quickly,  \  is  another  way 
gaining  time  |  ." 

3.  A  Sentence. — "  The  footman,  in  his  usual  phrase, 

Comes  up  with  '  Madam,  dinner  stays. ' ' ' 

OBS.  1.— The  Subsequent  of  a  Phrase  is  sometimes  suppressed. 
EXAMPLE. — "  These  crowd  around,  to  ask  him  of  his  health.1' 


<^F' 


RECAPITULATION.  23 

OBS.  2. — When  any  Element  of  a  Phrase  is  suppressed,  that  part  of 
the  Phrase  which  is  expressed — whether  Leader,  Subsequent,  or  Ad- 
junct— is  to  be  regarded  as  the  representative  of  the  whole  Phrase,  and, 
in  the  analysis  of  a  Sentence,  it  should  be  construed  as  the  ifhole 
Phrase  would  be  if  fully  expressed. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  "These  crowd  around,"  i.  e.,  around  him. 

2.  "  William  will  come  home,"  i.  e.,  to  his  home. 

3.  ' '  Mary  has  come  to  school  early, "  i.  e. ,  at  an  early  hour. 

"  Around,"  as  an  Element  in  the  Sentence,  is  an  Adverb — for  it  is  a 
representative  of  the  Adverbial  Phrase,  around  him. 

"  Around,"  as  an  Element  in  the  Phrase,  is  a  Preposition. 

u  Home,"  as  an  Element  in  the  Sentence,  is  an  Adverb — for  it  is  a 
representative  of  the  Adverbial  Phrase,  to  his  home. 

"  Home"  as  an  Element  in  the  Phrase,  is  a  Noun. 

11  Early,"  as  an  Element  in  the  Sentence,  is  an  Adverb — for  it  is  a 
representative  of  the  Adverbial  Phrase,  at  an  early  hour, 

"  Early,"  as  an  Element  in  the  P;ira*'j;  i'1  'in  Adjective 


PHRASE. 


RECAPITULATION. 

Leader. 


PRINCIPAL 
ELEMENTS. 


ADJUNCT 
ELEMENTS. 


Subsequent 


Adjective 


Adverbial , 


^osition. 

faiple. 

•antive. 


'rase. 
^/Sentence. 

Wofid. 
Phrase. 
Sentence. 


(  Word. 
•<  Phrase. 
[  Sentence. 


24  ENGLISH   GBAMMAB PAKT   I. 

SENTENCES. 

REMARK. — A  Sentence  may  be  resolved  into  its  Elements. 

DEF.  32. — The  Elements  of  a  Sentence  are  the  parts 
which  enter  into  its  structure. 

EEM. — In  the  structure  of  Sentences,  certain  general  principles  are  in- 
volved, which  are  common  to  all  languages. 

1.  We  have  that  of  which  something  is  declared.     This  is  called  the  Sub- 
ject of  the  Sentence. 

2.  There  must  be  a  word  or  words  used  to  declare — positively,  nega- 
tively, or  interrogatively — something  of  the^  subject.     This  is  called 
the  Predicate. 

These  two  parts  are  essential  to  the  structure  of  a  Sentence. 

3.  The  Predicates  of  some  Sentences  assert  acts  which  pass  over  to 
some  person  or  thing. 

The  names_^^^ch_  persons,   places,  or  things  are  called  Object 
Elements. 


4.  ThereJ  HJr1'  Elements,  used  to  .qualify,  to  limit,  or  to 

modify  the  various  j        ^Sentences.    These  are  called  Adjunct  Elements. 


The  jParcentence  are  distinguished  as 
Principal  Elements  and  Adjunct  Elements. 

DEF.  33.  —  The  Principal  Elements  of  a  Sentence  are  the 
parts  which  make  the  unqualified  assertion. 

EXAMPLES.  —  1^  Birds  fly. 

2.  The  sun  shines. 

3  .   "  The  night  passed  away  in  song.  '  ' 

4.  "The  mountains  showed,  their  gray  heads.'1 

6.  "  Thy  bounty  shines  in  Autumn,  unconfmed, 

6.  And  spreads  a  common  feast  for  all  that  live.' 

7.  "  The  king  of  shadows  loves  a  shining  mark." 

8.  "In  the  beginning,  God  created  the  heaven  and  the 

earth.1' 


ANALYSIS    AND   CLASSIFICATION.  25 

DEF.  34. — The  Adjunct  Elements  of  a  Sentence  are  such 
as  describe  or  modify  other  elements. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  "  TJie  \  night  passed  |  away  \  in  song." 

2.  "  The  king  |  of  shadows  \  loves  |  a  \  shining  \  mark." 

3.  "  There  \  in  his  noim/  mansion,  \  skilled  to  rule,  \ 

4.  The  |  village  \  master  j  taught  |  his  \  little  \  school  |  ." 

5.  "  Lend  me  your  songs,  ye  nightingales." 

6.  "  0  Liberty !  I  wait  for  thee." 

HEM. — There  are  still  other  words,  which  are  neither  Principal  Ele- 
ments nor  Adjuncts, — words  which  are  sometimes  used  in  connection 
with  the  Sentence,  but  which  do  not  constitute  an  integral  part  of  it. 
Hence, 

DEF.  35. — Words  accompanying  a  Sentence  without 
entering  into  its  structure,  are  called 

Attendant  Elements, 

EXAMPLES.— 1.  "  Lend  me  your  songs,  ye  nightingales  /" 

2.  "  0  Liberty  !  I  wait  for  thee." 

3.  ' '  There  are  no  idlers  here. ' ' 

4.  "I  sit  me  down,  a  pensive  hour  to  spend." 

5.  "  Even  in  our  ashes  live  their  wonted  fires." 

6.  u  Friends,  Romans,  CountrymeQ<!~&$&jj^.mQ  your  ears." 


ANALYSIS  AND   CLASSIC 
The  Principal  Elements  of  a  Sentenc^Tafe, 
The  Subject,      \      The  Predicate,     \        The  Object. 

OBS.— Every  Sentence  must  have,  at  least,  one  Subject  and  one  Fred- 
icate,  expressed  or  understood. 

DEF.  36. — The  Subject  of  a  Sentence  is  that  of  which 
something  is  asserted. 

OBS. — The  Subject  of  a  Sentence  is  always  Substantive  in  its  office  ;  it 
may  be  a  Noun,  or  a  Word,  a  Phrase,  or  a  Sentence  used  for  a  Noun, 

EXAMPLES. 

a.  A  N%un. — 1.  Birds  fly. 

2.  ' '  Knowledge  is  p«wer. ' ' 

3.  "  Truth  crushed  t*  earth,  will  rise  again." 

3 


26  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR — PART   I. 

b.  A  Pronoun. — 4.   We  come. 

5.  They  are  satisfied. 

6.  "They  that  seek  me  early,  shall  find  me. 

c.  A  Phrase. — 7.  "  To  do  good,  is  the  duty  of  all  men. 

8.  "  His  being  a  minister,   prevented  his  rising  to  civil 

power. ' ' 

d.  A  Sentence. — 9.  "  At  what  time  he  took  orders,  doth  not  appear." 

10.  "  That  all  men  are  created  equal,  is  a  self-evident  truth." 

OBS.  A  Subject  of  a  Sentence  having  Adjuncts,  is  called  a  Modified 
Subject, 

EXAMPLE. — "  The  king  of  shadows  loves  a  shining  mark." 

DEF.  37. — The  Predicate  of  a  Sentence  is  the  Word  or 
"Words  that  express  what  is  asserted  of  the  subject. 

OBS. — The   Predicate   consists  of  a  Verb,  with  or  without  another 
Verb,  a  Participle,  an  Adjective,  a  Noun,  a  Pronoun,  or  a  Preposition. 

EXAMPLES. 

o.  A  Verb  only. — 1.  Birds  fly. 

2.  Quadrupeds  run. 

3.  "  Here  sleeps  he  now  alone." 
5.  Two   Verbs.—. 4.  "We  shall  go. 

5.  ^  $o  remember. 

not  in  the  lofty  pine 
tisturb  the  sparrow's  nest." 

c.  A  Verb  ariW  s^articiple. — 7.  John  was  injured. 

Willie  is  reading. 

9.  "Thou  art  perched  aloft  on  the  heetling  crag." 

d.  A  Verb  and  an  Adjective. — 10.  James  became  poor. 

11 .  Warner  is  sleepy. 

12.  "  And  the  waves  are  white  helow." 

e.  A  Verb  and  a  Noun. — 13.  God  is  love. 

14.  We  are  friends. 

15.  *'  The  proper  study  of  mankind  is  man." 

/.  A  Verb  and  a  Pronoun. — 16.  It  is  I. 

17.  Who  are  you  ? 

18.  "  Thine  is  the  kingdom. ' ' 

g.  A  Verb  and  a  Preposition. — 19.  Its  idle  hopes  are  o'er. 
20.  That  business  has  been  attended  to. 


ELEMENTS   OF   SENTENCES.  27 

KEMARKS. — The  Predicate  is  varied  not  only  in  form,  but  also  in  its 
functions. 

1.  It  may  assert  an  act — as,  William  walks. 

2.  It  may  assert  being — as,  God  exists. 

3.  It  may  assert  quality — as,  Sugar  is  sweet. 

4.  It  may  assert  possession — as,  "  Thine  is  the  kingdom." 
6.  It  may  assert  identity — as,  It  is  I. 

6.  It  may  assert  condition — as,  Its  idle  hopes  are  o'er." 

7.  It  may  assert  change  of  condition — as,  "His  palsied  hand 

waxed  strong." 

OBS.  1. — The  term  "  Predicate"  has  two  applications — a  Logical  and  a 
Grammatical.  The  Logical  Predicate  includes  the  Grammatical  Predicate  and 
its  Object.  Thus,  in  the  sentence, 

"  The  king  of  shadows  loves  a  shining  mark," 
"  Loves  a,  shining  mark,"  is  the  Logical  Predicate  ; 
"Loves"  is  the  Grammatical  Predicate. 

OBS.  2. — In  Sentences  that  have  no  Objects,  the  Logical  and  the  Gram- 
matical Predicates  are  identical.     Thus,  in  the  sentence, 
"  The  oaks  of  the  mountains  fall," 
' '  Pair '  is  both  the  Logical  and  the  Grammatical  Predicate. 

OBS.  3. — The  Modified  Predicate  includes  the  Grammatical  Predicate  and 
its  Adjuncts.  Thus,  in  the  sentence, 

"  Hollow  winds  are  in  the  pines," 
"  Are  in  the  pines"  is  the  Modified  Predicate  of  "winds." 
'  *  Are  '  is  the  Grammatical  Predicate. ' ' 

REM. — The  Object  of  a  Sentence,  being  distinct  from  the  Grammati- 
cal Predicate,  is  properly  regarded  as  a  distinct  Element  in  the  structure 
of  such  Sentences  as  contain  Objects.  Hence, 

DEF.  38. — The  Object  of  a  Sentence  is  the  Word  or 
Words  on  which  the  act,  expressed  by  the  Predicate, 
terminates. 

OBS. — The  Object  of  a  Sentence  is  a  Noun,  or  a  Word,  a  Phrase,  or  a 
Sentence  used  for  a  Noun. 

EXAMPLES. 

a.  A  Noun. — 1.  John  saws  wood.     2.  Birds  build  nests. 

3.   "  Shall  joy  light  the  face  of  the  Indian  ?" 

b.  A  Pronoun. — 4.  I  have  seen  him.     5.    Whom  seekest  thou  ? 

6.   "  Oft  the  shepherd  called  thee  to  his  flock." 


28  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR — PART   I. 

c.  A  Phrase. — 7.    "  I  regret  his  being  absent. " 

d,  A  Sentence. — 8.   "  The  fool  hath  said  in  his  heart,  There  is  no  God" 

9.   "  And  God  said,  Let  there  be  ligld." 

ADJUNCT   ELEMENTS. 

An  Adjunct  Element  may  be 

A  Word,        |         A  Phrase,        \       A  Sentence. 

EXAMPLES. 

a.  A  Word. — 1.  We  were  walking  homeward. 

2.  We  shall  arrive  soon. 

3.  "  Darkly  waves  each  giant  bough." 

b.  A  Phrase. — 1.  We  were  walking  toward  home. 

2.  We  shall  arrive  in  a  short  time. 

c.  A  Sentence. — 1.  Students,  who  shidy,  will  improve. 

2.  Students  will  improve,  if  they  study." 

REM. — Adjuncts  are  used  to  limit  or  describe  things,  or  to  modify  acts 
or  qualities.  Hence, 

ADJECTIVE  or 
ADVERBIAL. 

Ocs.  1. — Adjective  Adjuncts,  whether  Words,  Phrases,  or  Sentences, 
are  such  as  answer  to  the  questions,  What  ?  What  kind  ?  Whose  ? 
How  many  ?  etc.  They  are  attached,  in  construction,  to  Nouns,  and  to 
1  'j'onuuns. 

OBS.  2. — Adverbial  Adjuncts — Words,  Phrases,  or  Sentences — are  such 
as  answer  to  the  questions,  H)w?  Why?  Where?  Whence?  Whether? 
etc.  They  are  attached  to  Verbs,  to  Adjectives,  and  to  Adverbs. 

OBS.  3. — Words,  Phrases,  and  Sentences,  having  no  Grammatical  con- 
nection with  other  Elements  in  a  Sentence,  often  perform  Adjunct  offices, 
by  limiting  or  modifying  the  application  of  other  Elements.  Such  are 
properly  called  Logical  Adjuncts. 

EXAMPLES. 

a.  Words. — 1.  Webster,  the  Statesman,  is  remotely  related  to  Web- 

ster, the  Lexicographer. 

2.  Clay—  Oassius  M. — had  more  honorable  benevolence 
than  political  sagacity. 

b.  Phrases. — 1.   "  Nfiprteon  having  fallen,  there  is  no  more  cause  for 

alarm." 


Adjuncts  are  distinguished  as  •] 

(  A 


ELEMENTS    OF    SENTENCES. 


29 


c.  Sentences. — "  It  is  possible  ttiat  Anna  will  come." 

REM. — The  words  "Statesman"  and  " Lexicographer"  are  used  to  dis- 
tinguish the  two  "  Websters ;"  u  Camus  M."  to  distinguish  which 
"Clay"  is  spoken  of;  the  Phrase  "Napoleon  having  fallen  "  to  tell  why 
there  is  no  more  cause  for  alarm  ;  and  "Anna  will  come"  is  a  Sentence 
used  to  tell  what  is  meant  by  the  word  "  it."  Hence,  we  have  Gram 
matical  Adjuncts  and  Logical  Adjuncts. 


RECAPITULATION. 


PRINCIPAL 
ELEMENTS. 


Subject  . . . 


Predicate 


{Word  . .  «  T 
(  Pronoun. 
Phrase ....  Substantive. 
Sentence. .  .Substantive. 

rS  43  another  Verb. 
">  g  a  Participle. 
pq  -g  an  Adjective. 
pq  *£  a  Noun. 
j>  g  a  Pronoun. 
<j       a  Preposition. 


0bJect ]  PAraae. . .  .Substantive. 

I  Sentence . .  .  Substantive. 


ADJUNCT 
ELEMENTS. 


Grammatical  - 


TFor^  . 
Phrase . 


Sentence  . 


(  Adjective. 
f  Adverb. 

Adjective. 

Adverbial. 

Adjective. 

Adverbial. 


Logical  .... 


3* 


Word... 


Phrase . .     .fc 


S  ^ 


Sentence.    £  g  £  ' 

02   pHM' 


30  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR — PART   I. 

EXERCISES.  IN     ANALYSIS. 
SENTENCES   WITHOUT   ADJUNCTS. 

Birds  fly. 


(j  Birds  X  fly  J 

FIEST  MODEL. 

(«.)_ 
Quest.  Of  what  is  something  here  said  ? 

Ans.  Something  is  said  of  " Birds" 

What  is  said  of  "  Birds"  ? 
A.  They/y. 

These  two  Words  thus  placed,  form  what  ? 
A.  A  Sentence,  for  they  constitute  "  an  assemblage  of 
words,  so  arranged  as  to  assert  an  entire  proposition." 

(6.) 
Birds  fly. 

Quest.  In  this  Sentence,  for  what  is  the  Word  "  Birds"  used  ? 
Ans.  To  tell  what  "  fly." 

For  what  is  the  Word  "fly"  used  ? 

A.  To  tell  what  "  Birds"  do. 

(c.) 

Birds  fly. 
" Every  Sentence  must  have  a  Subject  and  a  Predicate" 

Quest. '  In  this  Sentence,  what  is  the  Subject  9 
Ans.  " Birds" — for  it  "is  that  of  which  something  is 
asserted." 

What  is  the  Predicate  ? 

A.  "  Fly" — for  it  "  is  the  word  that  expresses  what  is 
asserted  of  the  Subject." 

bus,  analyze  the  following  additional 


EXAMPLES. 


1.  Fishes  swim. 

2.  Horses  gallop, 

3.  Lightning  flashes. 


4.  Mary  is  reading. 

5.  Winter  has  come. 

6.  Resources  are  developed. 


7.  Lessons  should  have  been  studied. 


EXERCISES   IN   ANALYSIS.  31 

KEM. — In  the  last  example,  the  four  words  "  should  have  been  stud- 
ied," constitute  the  Predicate  of*'  lessons." 

REM.  2.  —The  Pupil  will  notice  that,  when  the  Predicate  consists 
of  more  than  one  word,  the  last  word  makes  the  Principal  Assertion  ;  the 
other  words  perform  subordinate  offices.  Thus,  in  Example  7, 
"Should"  denotes  obligation;  "Should  have"  denote  obligation  and 
time  ;  ' '  Should  have  been' '  denote  oUigaiion,  time,  and  voice.  These  are 
subordinate  to  the  principal  assertion  expressed  by  the  word  "  studied." 

John  is  sleepy. 


f         John.        Y      is  sleepy 

SECOND  MODEL. 

ANALYSIS. 

Subject "  John." 

Predicate "  is  sleepy.1' 

KEM. — In  a  limited  sense,  a  Verb  may  be  said  to  qualify  or  describe 
its  subject. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  John  deeps. 

Here,  "sleeps"  describes  a  condition  of  "John." 

2.  John  is  sleeping. 

Here,  "  is  sleeping  '  asserts  a  condition  of  "  John." 

3.  John  is  sleepy. 

Tn  this  Sentence,  "  is  sleepy"  asserts  a  condition  of  John  as  definitely 
as  do  the  Words,  "  is  sleeping  ;"  and  the  genius  of  the  language  requires 
the  Word  "sleeping"  to  be  added  to  the  Verb  "is,"  in  order  to  ex- 
press the  lict  intended  ;  so  the  other  fact  concerning  "  John"  requires 
the  Word  "sleepy"  to  be  added  to  the  Verb  '"is."  The  Sentence  is 
not,  sleeping  John  is — i  e..  exists;  nor  is  the  other,  sleepy  John  is — i.  e., 
exists;  but  "John  is  sleeping,"  and  "  JohrTis  sleepy. "  "Sleeping"  is  a 
Participle,  in  predicate  with  "  is."  "  Sleepy"  is  an  Adjective,  in  pred- 
icate with  ' '  is. ' ' 

fiT  Let  the  Pupil,  in  like  manner,  construe  and  place  in  Diagrams 
the  following  additional 


EXAMPLES. 


T.  William  is  diligent. 

2.  James  was  weary. 

3.  Flowers  are  beautiful. 

4.  Mountains  are  elevated. 


5.  Velvet  feels  smooth. 

6.  Robert  has  become  poor 

7.  I  felt  languid. 

&  Soldiers  waxed  valiant. 


9.   "  His  palsied  hand  wax'd  strong. ' ' —  Wilson. 
10.  "  All  earth-born  cares  are  wrong." — Anon. 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR — PART  I. 


God  is  love. 


God 


X 


love 


THIRD    MODEL. 


A  Sentence »...<,  c . See  Definition. 

ANALYSIS. 

The  Subject—"  God" See  Definition. 

The  Predicate — " Is  love". ......  .See  Definition. 

NOTE. — "  God,"  is  the  name  of  a  Being — '*  Love,"  is  the  name  of  an 
attribute  of  that  Being.  ' '  Is  love, ' '  asserts  a  fact  concerning  God  ;  and 
that  fact  can  not  well  be  expressed  without  these  two  Words  thus  com- 
bined. 

ADDITIONAL   EXAMPLES. 

5.  Ye  are  benefactors. 

6.  I  am  [a]  student. 

7.  William  and  John  are  brothers. 

are  friends  and  neighbors. 


l7  We  are  slaves. 

2.  Men  are  animals. 

3.  Thou  art  Peter. 

4.  John  is  [a]  friend. 


c 


Virtue 


Virtue  secures  happiness. 

Y  secures  Y 


hnppiness 


FOURTH  MODEL. 


A  Sentence. See  Definition. 


ANALYSIS. 


The  Subject — "  Virtue" See  Definition. 

The  Predicate — u  Secures" See  Definition. 

The  Object — "  Happiness" See  Definition. 


ADDITIONAL 

Jt  Birds  build  nests. 

2.  Clouds  furnish  rain. 

3.  Science  promotes  happiness. 

4.  Sin  produces  misery. 

5.  Conscience   demands    obedi- 
ence. 

6.  Napoleon  obtained  renown. 

7.  Washington   secured  admi- 
ration. 


9C  Howard  alleviated  suffering. 
9.  Columbus  discovered  America. 

10.  Fulton  invented  steamboats. 

1 1 .  David  enlarged  Jerusalem. 

12.  Caesar  conquered  Gaul. 

13.  John  preached  repentance. 
14    Master  tau<rht  pchool. 

15.  Students  need  instruction. 

16.  Railroads  facilitate  travel. 


EXERCISES    IN    ANALYSIS. 


33 


SENTENCES    WITH    ADJUNCTS. 


"  Our  national  resources  are  developed  by  an  earnest 
culture  of  the  arts  of  peace" 


FIFTH    MODEL. 

(a.) 

Quest.  Concerning  what  is  an  assertion  here  made  ? 
Ans.  Concerning  "resources" 

What  is  asserted  of  ' '  resources' '  ? 
A.  Resources  " are  developed" 

What  resources  are  developed  ? 
A,  "National"  resources. 

What  national  resources  ? 
A.  "  Our"  national  resources. 

How  are  our  national  resources  developed  f 
A.  "  By  an  earnest  culture  of  the  arts  of  peace" 

By  what  culture  ? 
A,  By  "  earnest"  culture. 

What  earnest  culture  ? 
A.  "An"  earnest  culture. 

What  fpecial  culture  ? 

A.  Culture  "  of  the  arts  of  peace" 

Of  what  arts  ? 

A.  "  The"  arts  "  of  peace." 


34:  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR PART    I. 

(6.) 

Quest.  In  the  above  Sentence,  what  is  the  use  of  "  our"  ? 
Ans.  To  define  some  particular  national  resources. 

What  is  the  use  of  "  national"  ? 
A.  To  tell  what  resources. 

What  is  the  use  of  "  resources"  ? 
A.  To  tell  what  are  developed. 

What  is  the  use  of  "  are  developed"  ? 
A.  To  tell  what  is  said  of  resources. 

What  is  the  use  of  "  by  an  earnest  culture  of  the  arts  of  peace"  ? 
A.  To  tell  how  resources  are  developed. 


(c.) 

Ques.  What  is  the  Modified  Subject  ? 
Ans.  u  Our  national  resources." 

What  is  the  Modified  Predicate  ? 

A.  "  Are  developed  by  an  earnest  culture  of  the  arts  of 
peace." 

What  are  the  principal  Elements  of  this  Sentence  ? 
A.  u Resources  are  developed"     They  "  express  the  un- 
qualified assertion." 

What  is  the  Subject  ? 

A.  "Resources"     It   is   the   name  of  "that  of  which 
something  is  asserted." 

What  is  the  Predicate  ? 

A.  "  Are  developed."     Those  words  "  express  what  is 
affirmed  of  the  Subject." 

What  are  the  Adjunct  Elements  of  the  Sentence  ? 
A.  "  Our"    and    "  National"    are   Word   Adjuncts    of 
"  Resources ;"  and  "  by  an  earnest  culture  of  the  arts  of 
peace"  is  a  Phrase  Adjunct  of  "are  developed." 


ELEMENTS    OF    SENTENCES.  35 


QUESTIONS   FOR   KEVIEW. 

PAOB 

15.  What  is  Language  ? See  Def.  1. 

What  language  is  Natural  ?  —what;  Artificial  ? See  Obs.  1. 

Artificial  language  is  how  distinguished  ? 

What  is  Spoken,  Language  ? See  Def.  2. 

What  is  Written  Language? See  Def.  3. 

What  is  Grammar? See  Def.  4. 

16.  What  is  English  Grammar  ? See  Def.  5. 

What  is  a  Letter  ?—SL  Word  ?— a  Phrase  ? See  Def.  6,  7,  8. 

What  is  a  Sentence  ? See  Def.  9. 

17.  By  their  uses,  how  are  Words  classified? 

What  is  a  Noun ?— a  Pronoun?— an  Adjective?  .  .See  Def.  10,  11,  12. 

18.  What  is  a  Verb? -an  Adverb?— a  Preposition?  ..See  Def.  13,  14,  15. 
What  is  a  Conjunction? — an  Exclamation? — a)    gee  j)ef  \§   17   13 

Word  of  Euphony  ? f 

19.  By  their  offices,  how  are  Phrases  classified? 

What  is  a  Substantive  Phrase  ? — an  Adjective  Phrase  ?  .  See  Def.  19,  20. 

20.  What  is  an  Adverbial  Phrase?— tm  Independent  Phrase?  .  .Def.  21,  22. 
By  their  forms,  how  are  Phrases  classified? 

What  is  a  Prepositional  Phrase? — an  Infinitive  Phrase?  : .  .Def.  23,  24. 
What  is  a  Participial  Phrase?— tm  Independent  Phrase? .  .  .Def.  25,  26. 

21.  What  are  the  Distinct  Elements  of  Phrases  ? 

What  are  Principal  Elements  of  Phrases  ? See  Def.  27. 

What  are  Adjunct  Elements  of  Phrases  ? See  Def.  28. 

The  Principal  Elements  consist  of  what  ? 

What  is  the  Leader  of  a  Phrase  ? — it  may  consist  of  what  ?  .  .Def.  29. 

22.  What  is  the  Subsequent  of  a  Phrase  ?— it  may  consist  of  what  ? .  Def.  31. 

24.  What  are  the  Elements  of  a  Sentence  ? — how  distinguished  ? . .  Def.  32. 
What  are  Principal  Elements  ? — what,  Adjunct  Ele-  )  g      -^  *  OQ   OA 

rnents? j 

25.  What  are  called  Attendant  Elements  ? See  Def.  35. 

The  Principal  Elements  of  a  Sentence  consist  of  what  ? 

What  is  the  Subject  of  a  Sentence  ? — it  may  consist  of  what  ? .  Def.  36. 

26.  What  is  the  Predicate  ?— it  may  consist  of  what  ? See  Def.  37. 

27.  What  is  the  Logical  Predicate  of  a  Sentence  ? See  Obs.  1. 

What  is  the  Modified  Predicate  of  a  Sentence  ? See  Obs.  3. 

What  is  the  Object  ?— it  may  consist  of  what  ? See  Def.  38. 

28.  Adjunct  Elements  may  consist  of  what  ? 
What  are  Logical  Adjuncts? 


36 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR — PART    I. 


DIAGRAMS* 

REM. — The  office  of  an  Element  in  a.  Sentence  determines  its  position 
JB  the  Diagram,  according  to  the  following 

GENERAL   RULES. 
A. 


KULE  1. — The  Principal  Elements  of  a  Sentence  are 
placed  uppermost,  and  on  the  same  horizontal  line ; — as 
(l),  (2),  (3),  Diagrams  A  and  B. 

RULE  2. — The  Subject  of  a  Sentence  takes  the  first 
place; — as,  (l)  and  (it),  Diagrams  A,  and  (l),  (6),  and 
(25)  B. 

RULE  3. — The  Predicate  of  a  Sentence  is  placed  to  the 
right  of  the  Subject — attached; — as,  (2),  and  (11),  A,  and 
(2),  (7),  (11),  and  (26),  B. 


GENERAL   RULES   FOR   DIAGRAMS.  37 

RULE  4.-^-The  Object  of  a  Sentence  is  placed  to  the 
right  of  the  Predicate — attached; — as  (3),  A,  and  (3),  (12), 
and  ( X  ),  B. 

RULE  5. — An  Adjunct  of  a  Sentence  is  placed  beneath 
the  Word  which  it  limits  or  modifies — attached  ;  as,  (4), 
(5),  (6),  (7),  (12),  (13),  (14),  (17),  (18),  (23),  A,  and  (4), 
(5),  (8),  (9),  (17),  (18),  (19),  (20),  (23),  (24),  B. 

RULE  6. — If  the  Adjunct  is  a  Phrase,  its  Leader  is  at- 
tached to  the  Word  which  it  limits  ;  as,  (15),  (19),  (25), 
A,  and  (15),  (21),  B. 

RULE  7. — If  the  Adjunct  is  a  Sentence,  it  is  attached  by 
a  line  to  the  Word  which  the  Adjunct  Sentence  limits  ;  as, 
the  Adjunct  Sentence  within  the  dotted  line  (6),  is  attached 
by  the  line  from  (2)  to  (9),  A,  and  (6  to  19  inclusive)  is  at- 
tached to  (1),  B. 

RULE  9. — A  Logical  Adjunct  is  placed  beneath  the 
Word,  which  it  describes,  but  not  attached.  [See  page 
39.] 

RULE  9. — The  Subsequent  of  a  Phrase  is  placed  to  the 
right  of  its  Leader — attached;  as,  (20  and  21)  to  the  riuht 
Of  (19)_(26)  to  the  right  of  (25)— (16)  of  (15),  A,  and  (22) 
of  (21)—  (.6)  of  (15),  B. 

RULE  10.— A  Conjunction  used  to  introduce  a  Sent/Mice 
is  placed  above  the  Predicate  of  the  Sentence  which  it  in- 
troduces;  as,  (a),  used  to  introduce  the  Sentence  (1,  2,  3)\ 
A,  and  (9),  introducing  the  Adjunct  Sentence  (10,  11),  A, 
and  (#),  introducing  the  Sentence  (1,  2,  3),  B. 

RULE  11. — A  Conjunction  used  to  connect  Words, 
Phrases,  or  Sentences,  similar  in  construction,  is  placed 
between  the  Elements  connected;  as,  (10),  connecting  (11) 
to  (7),  B.  [See  also  Diagram,  page  41.] 

4 


38  ENGLISH    GKAMMAK PART   I. 

RULE  12. — A  Relative  Pronoun  or  a  Possessive  Adject- 
ive used  to  introduce  an  Adjunct  Sentence,  is  attached  to 
the  "  antecedent"  by  a  line ;  as  (6)  attached  to  (l)  and  (  x) 
attached  to  (22),  B. 

CLASSIFICATION    OF    SENTENCES. 

REMARK. — Some  Sentences  assert  the  being,  condition,  or  state  of  a  per- 
son or  of  a  thing — or  an  act  which  does  not  pass  over  to  an  Object. 

Others  assert  acts  which  terminate  on  Objects. 

Some  Sentences  assert  but  one  fact— others  assert  more  than  one. 

Some  assert  an  Independent  or  a  Principal  Proposition — others  a 
Secondary  or  a  Qualifying  Proposition.  Hence, 

Sentences  are  distinguished  as 

Intransitive  or  Transitive, 
Simple  or  Compound, 
Principal  or  Auxiliary. 

DEF.  43. — An  Intransitive  Sentence  is  a  Sentence  that 
asserts  condition,  being,  or  state — or  an  act  which  does  not 
terminate  on  an  Object. 


EXAMPLES. 


1.  William  sleeps. 

2.  Errors  abound. 

3.  Mary  is  cheerful. 


4.  God  is  love. 

5.  Mountains  are  elevated. 

6.  Fishes  swim. 


7.  "On  some  fond  breast  the  parting  soul  relies." 

8.  "  Now  fades  the  glimmering  landscape  on  the  sight/' 
90  "  Satyrs  and  sylvan  boys  were  seen 

Peeping  from  forth  their  valleys  green." 


OBS. — An  Intransitive  Sentence  contains  one  or  more  Subjects  and 
Predicates — but  no  Object. 


CLASSIFICATION    OF    SENTENCES.  39 

DEF.  44. — A  Transitive   Sentence  is   a   Sentence   that 
asserts  an  act  which  terminates  on  an  Object. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  Virtue  secures  happiness. 

2.  Industry  promotes  health  and  wealth. 

3.  "  I  thank  thee,  Roderick,  for  the  word." 

4.  «'  The  king  of  shadows  loves  a  shining  mark." 

6.  "And  the  eye  and  the  heart  hailed  its  beautiful 
form." 


OBS.— A  Transitive  Sentence  has  at  least  one  Subject,  one  Predicate, 
and  one  Object. 

DEF.  45. — A  /Simple  Sentence  is  a  Sentence  that  asserts 
but  one  proposition. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  William  sleeps. 

2.  Mary  is  cheerful. 

3.  Virtue  secures  happiness. 

4.  "  The  king  of  shadows  loves  a  shining  mark." 


OBS. — A  Simple  Sentence   can.  have  but  one  Subject,  one  Predicate, 
and — when  Transitive — one  i 


DEF.  46. — A  Compound  Sentence  is  a  Sentence  that  as- 
serts more  than  one  proposition. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  Anna  and  Mary  study  Latin. 

2.  Temperance  elevates  and  ennobles  man. 
w  3.  Robert  studies  Grammar  and  Arithmetic. 

4.   *'  Slowly  and  sadly  they  climb  the  distant  mountain, 
And  read  their  doom  in  the  setting  sun." 

OBS. — A  Compound  Sentence  has  more  than  one  Subject  or  Predicate 
or  Object. 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR PART    I. 

DEF.  46  (b). — In  a  Compound  Sentence,  the   Principal 
Elements  which  are  compounded  are  called  Clauses. 
OBS — The  Compound  Clauses  may  be, 

1.  The  Subjects  only —  Warner  and  Arthur 

study  Grammar. 

2.  The   Predicates   only— Warner   studies 
iraar  )  and  recites  Grammar. 

3.  The   Objects  only  —  Warner    studies 

Grammar  and  Arithmetic. 

4.  The  Subjects  and  the  Predicates —  War- 

ner    and    Arthur    study    and    recite 
Grammar. 

5.  The  Subjects  and  the  Objects—  Warner 

and    Arthur  study    Grammar    and 
Anthmetic. 

6.  The  Predicates  and  the  Objects— War- 

ner studies  and  recites  Grammar  and 

Arithmetic. 

. 7.  The  Subjects,  the  Predicates,  and  the 

— — ^  Objects—  Warner   and   Arthur  study 

and  recite  Grammar  and  Arithmetic. 

OBS. — A  Compound  Sentence  may  have  more  than  two  clauses. 


Friendship 


{       Love 


Truth 


EXAMPLES. 

Friendship.  Love,  and  TVi^/i  abound. 

"Oxygen,  Carbon,  Hydrogen,  and  Nitrogen 
constitute  the  chief  elements  of  organized 
matter." 


EEM. — Sentences  which  have  Compound  Predicates  often  have 
Objects  applicable  to  only  a  part  of  them.  Hence, 

DEF.  46  (c). — A  Compound  Sentence,  having  one  or 
more  Transitive,  and  one  or  more  Intransitive  Predicates, 
is  called  a  Mixed  Sentence. 


1.  "  Time  slept  on  flowers, 
and  lent  his  glass  to 
Hope." 


X       glaft8   S3      HKM  — "  Slept"  is  Intran- 


sitive ;  ' '  lent' '  is  Transitive. 


CLASSIFICATION   OF   SENTENCES. 


2.  The  stars  will  then  lift  up 
their  heads  and  rejoice. 

REM.  —  "Will  lift"  is 
Transitive  ;  *'  rejoice"  is  In- 
transitive. 

3.  "I  will  never  pant  for  public  honors, 

Nor  disturb  my  quiet  with  the  affairs  of  state." 

4.  * '  Who  can  observe  the  careful  ant, 

And  not  provide  for  future  want." 

DEF.  47. — A  Principal  Sentence  asserts  an  independent 
or  a  principal  proposition. 


A   mortal    DISEASE    WAS 
upon  her  vitals. 

2.  "  The    FUR    w AHMED    a 

BEAR." 

3.  "HE         HATII         BROUGHT 

many      CAPTIVES      to 
Rome." 

DEF.  48. — An  Auxiliary  Sentence  is  a  Sentence  that  is 
used  as  an  Element  in  the  structure  of  another  Sentence 
or  of  a  Phrase. 


1.  "A  mortal  DISEASE  WAS 

upon  her  vitals  /*/,>/v> 
Ccesar  had  passed  the 
Rubicon. ' ' 

2.  "The   FUR   that  warm*  a 

monarch,      WARMED     a 

BEAR." 

REMARK. — "  That  w:mns 
a  monarch"  is  an  Adjunct 
of  "fur." 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR — PART   I. 


'  He         HATH         BROUGHT 

many    CAPTIVES     to 
Rome, 

Whose    ransom    did-  the 
general  coffers  fill. ' ' 


4.  "  SWEET  WAS  the  SOUND,  when  oft,  at  evening's  close, 

Up  yonder  hill  the  village  murmur  rose. 

5.  "  The  bounding  STEED  you  pompously  bestride, 

SHARES  with  his  lord  the  PLEASURE  and  the  PRIDE." 


6.  "I   HAVE    a    TEMPLE  in 

every   heart   that   owns 

my  influence." 

REMARK.  —  ' '  That  owns 
my  influence"  describes 
"heart." 

7 .  "  Oft  as  the  morning  dawns 

SHOULD     GRATITUDE     AS- 
CEND." 

REMARK.  —  * '  Oft' '  modi- 
fies ' '  should  ascend. "  "As 
the  morning  dawns' '  limits 
"oft." 


8.  "To  him  that  u-isJiesfor  me,  I  AM  always  PRESENT." 

9.  "  These  lofty  TREES  WAVE  not  less  proudly, 

Thai  tlieir  ancestors  moulder  beneath  them. ' ' 

OBS. — A  Principal  Sentence  and  its  Auxiliary  Sentences  constitute  a 
Complex  Sentence.     [See  EXAMPLES  1,  2,  above.] 

REM. — An  Auxiliary  Sentence  is  an  Adjunct  of  a  Word,  a  Phrase,  or 
a  Sentence  ;  or  it  is  used  as  a  substitute  for  a  Noun.     Hence, 

Auxiliary  Sentences  are  distinguished  as 

Substantive, 
Adjective,  and 
Adverbial. 


CLA$SSFICAT1ON    OF    SENTENCES.  43 

DEF.  49.- — A  Substantive  Sentence  is  used  as  the  Subject 
or  the  Object  of  a  {Sentence ;  or  as  the  Object  of  a  Phrase. 


1.  "  That  good  men  sometimes 
commit  faults,  can  not  be 
denied. ' ' 


shows  ^ 


3.  He  refused  to  tell  what 


4.  "  That  all  men  are  created  equal,  is  a  self-evident  truth." 

5.  "  Yet  Brutus  says  he  was  ambitious." 

DEF.  50. — An  Adjective  Sentence  is  a  Sentence  that  is 
used  as  an  Adjunct  of  a  Substantive, 

. 

EXAMPLES. 

He          I       loveth.       \        soul         )     1.   "HE    that   getteth    wisdom 
bis ~Y own  ")  LOVETH  his  own  SOUL." 

2.  THEM  that  honor  me,  I  WILL 
HONOR." 


JOHN  is  not  ABLE  to  tell 
what  he  knows. 

QDCE^X^^) 

4.  "  That  life  \A  long  irlirh  arwrcrs  life  s  great  end." 

5.  "  Tho  man  <>f  wealth  and  pride 

Takes  up  a  space  that  many  poor  supplied." 

6.  "  Here  I  come  to  tell  what  I  do  know." 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR PART    I. 


DEF.  51. — An  Adverbial  Sentence  is  a  Sentence  that  is 
used  as  an  Adjunct  of  a  Verb,  ar  Participle,  an  Adjective, 
or  another  Adverb, 

EXAMPLES. 


kneeled 


they 


fought 


rejoice. 


improve 


1.  "They     kneeled     before 
they  fought. ' ' 


2.   "Teachers  rejoice    when 

their  pupils  improve. ' ' 


C 


Who 


3.   "  "Who  is  here  so  base  that 
he  would  be  a  bondman  T ' 

EEMARK. — "Base"  de- 
scribes "  who  ;"  "so"  mod- 
ifies "base;"  "that  he 
would  be  a  bondmen' '  lim- 
its "so." 


£  he  ^    would  be  bondman  ^ 

4.  "  Where  icealtk  and  freedom  reign,  contentment  fails." 

5.  "  How  dear  to  my  heart  are  the  scenes  of  my  childhood 

When  fond  recollection  presents  them  to  view. ' ' 

6.  "  These  lofty  trees  wave  not  less  proudly 

That  their  ancestors  moulder  beneath  them." 

OBS. — A  Sentence  is  sometimes  a  Logical  Adjunct  of  some  Word  in  a 
Principal  Sentence. 

EXAMPLES. 


f               It               A        "    possible        )     1 .  It  is  possible  thai  ice  mis- 
~~ 


See  page  28,, 


„,,, 


B — "  That  we  misjudge"  is  a  Sentence,  used  to  limit  the  appli- 
cation of  the  Word  "it."  Hence,  the  Sentence  is  an  Adj  inct  of  the 
Word.  It  is  called  a  Logical  Adjunct  because  there  is  no  Grammatical 
connection  between  the  two  Sentences, 


CLASSIFICATION   OF   SENTENCES. 


EECAFITULATION    OF    DIAGRAMS. 
1.    FOR   SENTENCES. 


K 


.  ...a  Simple  Sentence — Intransitive. 
EXAMPLE. — "  Landscape  fades." 

a  Simple  Sentence — Transitive. 

Ex. — "  Master  taught  school." 

a  Compound  Sentence — Intransitive. 

Ex. — "  Lark  ascends  and  sings." 

a  Compound  Sentence — Intransitive. 
Ex. — "  Wealth  and  freedom  reign." 

.a  Compound  Sentence — Transitive. 
Ex. — "  We  beheld  moon  and  stars." 

.a  Compound  Sentence — Transitive. 
Ex. — '•  Urn  or  bust  can  call  breath." 
.  a  Compound  Sentence — Transitive. 
Ex. — "  Liberty  and  union  promote  peace 

and  safety. ' ' 

.  a  Compound  Sentence — Transitive. 
Ex. — "  State  conforms  and  models  life." 
.a  Compound  Sentence — Transitive. 
Ex. — "Spirit  unfurls  light  and  wheels 

•     course." 

— ^  .  a  Compound  Sentence — Transitive, 
n     j  Ex. — "  Wisdom  and  virtue  elevate  and 

'  ennoble  man. ' ' 

.a  Compound  Sentence — Transitive.  ^ 
Ex. — "  Youth    and   beauty   tread    ring 

and  shout  raptures. 

'   ....a  Compound  Sentence — Mixed. 
Ex. — l 'He  breathes  fragra  nee  &nd  sleeps."- 

a  Compound  Sentence — Mixed. 

.    Ex. — "  Fruits  ripen  and  yield  repasts." 

COMPLEX   SENTENCES. 

the  Principal  Sentence. 

Ex. — "He  loveth  soul." 

. . .  .Auxiliary  Sentence- -Adjective. 

Ex. — ' '  That  getteth  wisdom. ' ' 

the  Principal  Sentence. 

Ex. — "  He  will  make  apology." 

Aux  iliary  Sentence — Adverb. 

Ex. — "  If  John  has  injured  you." 

.  a  Sentence  having  a  Phrase  for  its 

Subject. 

Ex . — 4  *  Finding  fault  discourages  youth . '  * 
. .  .a  Sentence  having  a  Sentence  for 

its  Object. 
Ex. — "  Man  eu-laims,  they  come." 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR — PART    I 

2.    PHRASES, 


a  Prepositional  Phrase— Simple. 

EXAMPLE. — *«  Of  Jam. ' ' 

a  Prepositional  Phrase — Compound. 

Ex. — "  In  peace  and  safety." 

a  Participial  Phrase — Simple,  Transitive. 
Ex. — "  Gaining  time. ' ' 

an  Infinitive  Phrase — Intransitive. 

Ex. — "  To  dream." 

an  Infinitive  Phrase — Transitive. 

Ex. — ' *  To  give  gifts.' ' 


.  .an  Independent  Phrase. — Intransitive. 
Ex. — "  Stwy  being  done. ' ' 

an  Independent  Phrase — Transitive. 

Ex. — "  Boat  having  left  wharf." 

COMPLEX   PHRASES. 

a  Participial  Phrase  the  Object  of  a 

Preposition. 
Ex. — "  Of  gaining  time  " 
Principal  Phrase  Prepositional,  or  Infin- 
itive, [itive. 
Auxiliary  Phrase  Prepositional,  or  Infin- 
Ex. — ' '  On  bed  of  sea-flowers. ' ' 
.a  Participial  Phrase,  having  a  Sentence 

for  its  Subsequent.     • 
Ex. — "Saying,  we  will  reply." 
. .  .Adjunct  Word — Adjective  or 'Adverb. 
. .  .Compound  Adjunct. 

EEM. — 1.  With  the  exception  of  the  last  two,  the  above  Diagrams 
are  adapted  to  the  Principal  Elements  of  a  Sentence  or  of  a  Phrase.  In 
the  exercises  which  follow,  these  Elements  are  variously  modified  by 
Adjunct  Words,  Phrases,  and  Sentences. 

2.  The  whole  Predicate — consisting  of  one,  two,  three,  four,  and 
-    sometimes  five  words — is  placed  in  one  Diagram,  as  exhibited  on  thd 
following  pages. 


CLASSIFICATION    OF    SENTENCES. 


A    47 


QUESTIONS    FOR   REVIEW. 

38.  Why  are  Sentences  classified  ? See  Remark. 

How  are  Sentences  classified  ? 

What  is  an  L.tran&itive  Sentence  ? See  Def.  43. 

May  Intransitive  Sentences  be  either  Simple  or  Com- 
pound?  See  Obs. 

Make  Intransitive  Sentences Simple. 

Make  "  "         Compound. 

39.  What  is  a  Transitive  Sentence  ? See  Def.  44. 

Make  Transitive  Sentences Simple. 

Make  "  "  Compound. 

What  is  a  Simple  Sentence  ? See  Def.  45. 

Make  Simple  Sentences Intransitive. 

Make  ' '  "  Transitive. 

What  is  a  Compound  Sentence  ? See  Def.  46. 

Make  Compound  Sentences Intransitive. 

Make         "  "  Transitive. 

40.  WTiat  are  Clauses  of  a  Sentence  ? See  Def.  46  (b). 

What  Elements  in  a  Sentence  may  be  compounded  ? .  See  Obs.  (1-7 ). 

Make  Sentences  having  Compound.. ....  .Subjects. 

Make         "  "  "         Predicates. 

Make        "  "  "         Objects. 

How  numerous  may  be  the  Clauses  of  a  Sentence  ? 

What  is  a  Mixed  Sentence ? .See  Def.  46  (c). 

Make  Mixed  Sentences— 1st  Clause  Transitive. 

Make      "  **  2d  Clause  Transitive. 

41.  What  is  a  Principal  Sentence  ? See  Def.  47. 

What  is  an  Auxiliary  Sentence  ? See  Def.  48. 

42.  What  is  a  Complex  Sentence  ? See  Obs. 

Make  Compound  Sentences. 

What  are  the  offices  of  Auxiliary  Sentences  ? See  B 

By  their   offices,    how   are   Auxiliary    Sentences    dis- 
tinguished ? 

43.  What  is  a  Substantive  Sentence  ? See  Def.  49. ' 

Make  a  Substantive  Sentence  that  shall  be  the  Subject  of  a 

Principal  Sentence. 
Make  a  Substantive  Sentence  that  shall  be  the  Object  of  a 

Principal  Sentence. 

What  is  an  Adjective  Sentence  9 See  Def.  50. 

Make  Adjective  Sentences. 

44.  What  is  an  Adverbial  Sentence  ? See  Def.  61. 

Make  Adverbial  Sentences. 


48  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR — PART   I. 


EXERCISES     IN     ANALYSIS. 

REM.  —  1.  In  the  following  Exercises  will  be  found  Sentences  of 
every  grade  —  from  the  most  simple  to  the  most  complex.  The  Teacher 
will  find  exercise  for  his  judgment  and  discretion  in  assigning  the  Sen- 
tences to  his  pupils  (for  analysis)  according  to  their  several  capacities.  • 

2.  The  Teacher  will  find  it  interesting  and  profitable  to  his  Pupils  to 
assign  to  each  at  least  one  Sentence,  to  be  placed  in  its  appropriate 
Diagram  —  drawn  on  the  black-board  ex  tempow,  or  on  paper  by  appoint- 
ment at  a  previous  recitation. 

SIMPLE  SENTENCES  —  Intransitive. 
1.  "  Now  fades  the  glimmering  landscape  on  the  sight" 


A  Simple  Sentence  —  Intransitive  ..........  See  Def.  43. 


The  Modified  Subject  ----  "  The  glimmering  landscape." 

The  Grammatical  Subject  ..............  "Landscape." 

The  Modified  Predicate  .  .  .  .  "  Now  fades  on  the  sight." 

The  Grammatical  Predicate  .  .  .  .-  ...........  "  Fades." 


ADJUNCT    ELEMENTS. 


nsu     c  T,-    ,    5  "The" a  Word. 

Of  the  Subject,   j  „  Glimmering» a  Word. 

(  "Now"   a  Word. 

Of  the  Predicate,  ]  u  Qn  ^  gight,, a  phrase- 

CONSTRUCTION. 

Elements.  Office.  Class. 

Now,  tells  when  "  landscape  fades."  Adjunct  of  "fades." 

Fades,  tells  what  "  landscape"  does.  Predicate  of  "  landscape. 

The,  tells  what  ' '  landscape. ' '       .  Adjunct  of ' '  landscape. ' ' 

Glimmering,  tells  what  "  landscape."  Ad] unct  of  "landscape. rt 

Landsca'pe,      tells  what  "  fades."  Subject  of  "  fades." 

On  the  sight,  tells  where  * '  landscape  fades. ' '  Adjunct  of  ' '  fades. ' ' 


EXERCISES   IN   ANALYSIS.  49 

Other  EXAMPLES  applicable  to  the  same  Diagram. 

2.  The  studious  pupil  |  seldom  fails  in  his  recitation. 

3.  The  arrogant  pedant  |  was  quickly  banished  from  the  company. 

4.  Such  bright  examples  |  seldom  fail,  ultimately,  to  please. 

5^  That  bright  meteor  |  flashed  brilliantly  athwart  the  heavens. 

6,  The  young  aspirant  |  never  succeeded  in  his  effort, 

7.  Our  brightest  students  |  are  also  foremost  in  their  sports. 

fjjj°  Let  each  Pupil  make  a  Sentence  adapted  to  the  same  Diagram, 


ADDITIONAL   EXAMPLES. 

Principal  Elements  similar — Adjuncts  dissimilar. 

8T  "  The  big  tear  \  then  started  from  his  eye." 

9.  "  Morni  s/ace  |  brightened  with  gladness." 

10.  "  His  aged  eyes    look  faintly  through  tears  of  joy/' 

11.  "  We  \  came  to  the  halls  of  Selma." 

12.  "  We    sat  around  the  feast  of  shells." 

13.  "  Fingal  \  rose  in  his  place." 

14.  "  The  sword  of  Trenmor  |  shook  by  his  side." 

15.  "  The  gray-haired  hero  \  moved  before." 

16.  "  On  the  pathway  of  spirits 

She  wanders  alone." 

17.  "  The  song  of  the  wood-dove  has  died  on  our  shore." 

18.  "  And  on  the  stranger's  dim  and  dying  eye 

The  soft,  sweet  pictures  of  his  childhood  lie." 

19.  "His  hair  falls  round  his  blushing  cheek,  in  the  wreaths  of 

waving  light." 

20.  "  A  flood  of  glory  bursts  from  all'the  skies." 

21.  "  The  long,  bright  days  of  summer  quickly  passed." 

22.  "  The  dry  leaves  whirled  in  Autumn's  rising  blast." 

23.  "  The  garden  rose  may  richly  bloom, 

In  cultured  soil  and  genial  air, 
To  cloud  the  light  of  Fashion's  room, 

Or  droop  in  Beauty's  midnight  hair." 
24r  "  On  Horeb's  rock  the  prophet  stood , — 

25.  The  Lord  before  him  passed  ; 

26.  A  hurricane,  in  angry  mood, 

Swept  by  him,  strong  and  fast ; 

27.  Tlie  forest  fell  before  its  force  ; 

28.  The  rocJcs  icere  shivered  ir>  its  course  ; 

29.  God  was  not  in  the  blast."     (See  p.  258,  Obs.  3,) 

r> 


50 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR  -  PART   I. 


SIMPLE  SENTENCES.  —  Transitive, 

1.  —  "  The  king  of  shadows  loves  a  shining  mark" 


kiDg 


loves 


mark 


Ml 


A  Simple  Sentence  —  Transitive  .............  See  Def.  44. 

ANALYSIS. 

C  The  Subject  ..........  "  King." 

PRINCIPAL  ELEMENTS.   <  The  Predicate  ........  "  Loves." 

(  The  Object  ..........  .  .  "  Mark." 

\  Of  the  Subject,         " 
0ftke  1 


Elements. 
The, 
King, 

Of  shadows, 
Loves, 
A, 

Shining, 
Mark, 


Office. 

to  tell  what  "  king." 
to  tell  icho  "  loves  mark." 
to  tell  u-hat  "  king." 
to  tell  what  the  king  does. 
to  tell  what  "  mark." 
to  tell  what  "  mark." 


Class. 

Adjunct  of  "  king." 
Subject  of  '*  loves." 
Adjunct  of  "  king." 
Predicate  of  '  '  king. 
Adjunct  of  "  mark. 
Adjunct  of  "  mark. 


to  tell  what  the  king  "loves."       Object  of  **  loves." 


Other  EXAMPLES  applicable  to  the  same  Diagram. 

2.  The  science  of  Geology  illustrates  many  astonishing  facts. 

3.  A  love  for  study  secures  oiir  intellectual  improvement. 

4.  The  habit  of  intemperance  produces  much  lasting  misery. 

5.  A  desire  for  improvement  should  possess  all  our  hearts. 

6.  The  use  of  tobacco  degrades,  many  good  men. 

7.  A  house  on  fire  presents  a  melancholy  spectacle. 

8.  A  man  of  refinement  will  adopt  no  disgusting  habits. 

JpO*'  Let  each  Pupil  make  a  Sentence  for  the  same  Diagram, 

#£^  Let  the  Pupil  read  only  the  Principal  Elements  of  the  above 
Sentences.     Thus, 

Love  secures  improvement, 
Then  let  him  add  the  Adjuncts  to  each  word. 


EXERCISES   IN   ANALYSIS.  51 

COMPOUND  SENTENCES. — Transitive. 
I.  u  Knowledge  reaches  or  may  reach  every  home?3 


ANALYSIS. 


f  The  Subject "  Knowledge." 

T>T>T          -r  i?T-r  ,  J  The  1  st  Predicate  ."Reaches." 

JrRINCIPAL  JbLLEMENTS.  <  r™       r.  7    D       7-     «v       uivr  i,  ?» 

The  2d  Predicate  ."  May  reach." 
[The  Object " Home."  • 

Of  the  Subject 

ADJUNCT  ELEMENTS.    \  Of  the  Predicate .. 


Of  the  Object "Every." 

ADDITIONAL   SENTENCES, 

Having  the  PRINCIPAL  ELEMENTS  similar  in  construction. 

2.  "  By  thus  acting,  we  cherish  and  improve  both." 

3.  "  Whose  potent  arm  perpetuates  existence  or  destroys. 

4.  ' '  For  which  we  shunned  and  hated  thee  before. ' ' 

5.  "  Hope,  like  a  cordial,  innocent  though  strong, 

Man's  heart  at  once  inspirits  and  serenes." 

6.  "  Hence  every  'state-,  to  one  loved  blessing  prone, 

Conforms  and  models  life  to  that  alone. ' ' 

7.  "  Mighty  Alfred's  piercing  soul 

Pervades  and  regulates  the  whole. ' ' 

8.  "  Temperance  fortifies  and  purifies  the  heart." 

9.  '  *  Bright  angels  viewed  with  wondering  eyes, 

And  hailed  the  incarnate  God. ' ' 

10.  "  Who  does  not  receive  and  entertain  a  polite  man  with  still  greater 

cheerfulness  ?' ' 

11.  "  And  oft  that  blessed  fancy  cheers, 

And  beam  my  heart  above. ' ' 

12.  "  That  voice  of  more  than  Roman  eloquence,  urged  and  sustained 

the  Declaration  of  Independence." 

13.  "  The  pewter  plate  on*  the  dresser,  caught  and  reflected  the  flame." 

*  See  Key,  pages  21  and  79. 


ENGLISH   GRAMMAR PART   I. 


1 .  "In  the  beginning,  God  created  the  heaven  and  the 
earth." 


God 


created 


T 


heaven         J 
.)    :^     the     ) 


earth 


injl     beginning^) 
- 


fThe  Subject "God." 

The  Predicate "  Created." 

PRINCIPAL  ELEMENTS.   <  (  "  Heaven" 

(  The  Objects \         and 

(  "  Earth." 


f  Of  the  Subject 


ADJUNCT    j   Of  the  Predicate "In  the  beginning." 

ELEMENTS.  1   Of  the  1st  Object "The." 

[  Of  the  2d  Object "  The." 


Elements. 

* '  In  the  beginning, ' 
"God," 

1  'Created," 

The, 

Heaven, 

And, 

The, 

Earth, 


CONSTRUCTION. 

Office. 

tells  when  God  "  created." 
tells  who  * '  created  heav- 
en and  earth." 
tells  what  l  *  God' '  did. 
tells  what  ' '  heaven. ' ' 
tells  ichat  "  God  created.1 
joins  "heaven  and  earth. ' 
tells  what  ' '  earth. ' ' 
tells  what  "  God  created.1 


Class-. 
Adjunct  of  "created.' 

-  Subject  of  "  created.'1 

Predicate  of  "  God." 
Adjunct  of  "  heaven.' 

'  Object  of  "  created." 

'  Conjunction. 
Adj  unct  of  * '  earth. ' ' 

'  Object. of  "created." 


ADDITIONAL  EXAMPLES,  for  the  same  Diagram. 

£-.  William  loves  his  study  and  his  play  with  equal  attachment. 

3.  God,  in  the  creation,  has  displayed  his  wisdom  and  his  power. 

4.  Men  gather  the  tares  and  the  wheat  with  equal  care. 

5.  We,  at  all  times,  seek  our  honor  and  our  happiness. 

6  Students   require   of  the   teacher  much  instruction  and  some 

patience. 

7  He  educated  his  daughter  and  his  son  at  great  expense. 


EXERCISES    IN    ANALYSIS. 


1.  "  Can  storied  urn  or  animated  bust 

Back  to  its  mansion  call  theflteting  breath?" 


LggJLJ  ^ojT^a^I^feli    fleeUpg 


{1st  Subject "  Urn." 
2d  Subject  . /. "Bust." 
The  Predicate «  Can  call » 
The  Object "  Breath." 

Of  the  \st  Subject "  Storied." 

Of  the  2d  Subject  . , . "  Animated." 

Qf  h    Predicate r  Back."          . 

J  )  "  To  its  mansion." 

C  "  Thp  " 
Of  the  Object j  "Fleeting." 


ADJUNCT 
ELEMENTS. 


ADDITIONAL  SENTENCES, 

In  which  the  PRINCIPAL  ELEMENTS  are  similar. 

2.   ''Illuminated  reason  and  regulated  liberty  shall  once  more  exhibit 

man  in  the  image  of  his  Maker." 
£   "The  hunter's  trail  arid  the   dark  encampments  startled  the  wild 

beasts  from  their  lairs. ' ' 

4.  "  Their  names,  their  years,  spelled  by  the  unlettered  muse, 
The  place  of  fame  and  elegy  supply. ' ' 

6.  "  Thy  praise 

The  widows'  sighs  and  orphans'  tears  embalm." 
C.   "  Hill  and  valley  echo  back  their  songs." 

7.  "  Tuen  Strife  and  Faction  rule  the  day," 

8.  "  And  Pride  and  Avarice  throng  the  way." 

9.  "  Loose  Revelry  and  Riot  bold, 

In  freighted  streets  their  orgies  hold." 
10.   "  Here  Art  and  Commerce,  with  auspicious  reign, 

Once  breathed  sweet  influence  on  the  happy  plain." 
5* 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR — PART   I. 


1.  "  The  Lord  uplifts  his  aicfulhand. 
And  chains  you  to  the  shore" 


fFie  Subject  

c  Lord." 

PRINCIPAL  ELEMENTS. 

The  1st  Predicate  
<  The  2d  Predicate  
The  1st  Object  

'  Uplifts." 
'  Chains." 
'  Hand." 

The  2d  Obiect  .. 

'  You." 

ADJUNCT 
ELEMENTS. 


Of  the  Subject "  The." 

Of  the  1st  Predicate 


Of  the  2d  Predicate "  To  the  shore." 

(  a  TT-q  ?? 

Of  the  1st  Object j  a  Awful." 


Of  the  Zd  Object . 


ADDITIONAL   EXAMPLES, 

In  which  the  PRINCIPAL  ELEMENTS  are  similar. 

2.  "He  heard  the  King's  command, 

And  saw  that  writing's  truth." 

3.  "  For  misery  stole  me  at  my  birth, 

And  cast  me,  helpless,  on  the  wild." 

4.  "  That  the  page  unfolds, 

And  spreads  us  to  the  gaze  of  God  and  men." 
6.   "Now  twilight  lets  her  curtain  down, 
And  pins  it  with  a  star." 

6.  "  They  fulfilled  the  great  law  of  labor  in  the  letter,  but  broke  it 

in  the  spirit. ' ' 

7.  ' '  Then  weave  the  chaplet  of  flowers,  and  strew  the  beauties  of 

Nature  about  the  grave. ' ' 

8.  "He  marks,  and  in  heaven's  register  enrolls 

The  rise  and  progress  of  each  option  there." 


EXERCISES    IN   ANALYSIS.  55 

1.  "  And  the  eyes  of  the  sleeper  waxed  deadly  and  chill" 


deadly 


waxed  .       C  C  and  ) 


PRINCIPAL   j  The  Subject  ----  "  Eyes." 

ELEMENTS.    {  The  Predicate  .  .  "  Waxed  deadly  and  chill." 


ADJUNCT     (  Of  the  Subject  \  "  ^e"  '  '  '  '  '  '  '  ;/  a  ^ord. 
•«  _  (  "  Of  the  sleeper"  .a  Phrase. 

ELEMENTS,  j  Of  the  Predicat\  ^  - 

NOTE.  —  The  words  "deadly"  and  "chill"  describe  "eyes,"  and 
are  therefore  ADJECTIVES  ;  but  they  describe  by  making,  (in  connection 
with  "  waxed")  an  assertion.  Hence  they  are  ADJECTIVES  IN  PREDICATE 
—  they  constitute  a  part  of  the  Predicate. 

ADDITIONAL   SENTENCES, 

Having  Adjectives  or  Participles  in  Predicate. 

2.  "  Age  is  dark  and  unlovely." 

3.  "  Bloodless  are  these  limbs  and  cold.1' 

4.  "  Now,  therefore,  be  not  grieved  nor  angry  with  yourselves." 
5  .  "  /  am  perplexed  and  confounded  .  '  ' 

6.  "  They  became  agitated  and  restless." 

7.  **  Rude  am  I  in  speech,  and  little  blest 

With  the  set  phrase  of  peace." 

8.  "  What  bark  is  plunging  mid  the  billowy  strife, 

And  dashing  madly  on  to  fearful  doom." 

9.  "  The  wares  of  the  merchant  are  spread  abroad  in  the  shops,  or 

stored  in  the  high-piled  warehouses  " 

10.  "  How  finely  diversified,  and  how  multiplied  into  many  thou- 

sand distinct  exercises,  is  the  attention  of  God  !" 

11.  "  Contentment  is  serious  but  not  grave." 

12.  "  The  promises  of  Hope  are  sweeter  than  roses  in  the  bud,  and 

far  more  flattering  to  expectation." 

13.  *•  For  cold  and  stiff  and  still  are  they 

Who  wrought  thy  walls  annoy."* 

*  Wrought  annoyance  to  thy  walla. 


56  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR PART   I. 

1.  "  Time  slept  on  flowers  and  lent  his  glass  to  hope? 


Time 


^^  slept 


lent 


flowers 


JC_!!! 


hope 


Subject "Time." 

T>  (  "  Slept" Intransitive. 

PRINCIPAL    I  r™      T>     •/•     ,       i 

TJ,  <  Ihe  Predicates.  4     and 

±LLEME;NTS.      I  j   ,,  T        A,,  m 

(  "  Lent" Transitive. 

Object "Glass." 

{Of  the  Subject 
Of  the  1st  Predicate . "  On  flowars" .  a  Phrase. 
Of  the  2d  Predicate . "  To  hope" ...  a  Phrase. 
Of  the  Object "  His" a  Word. 

ADDITIONAL   SENTENCES, 

Adapted  to  the  same  Diagram* 

2.  We  sigli  for  change,  and  spend  our  lives  for  naught. 

3.  William  goes  to  school,  and  pursues  his  study  with  zeal« 

4.  James  stays  at  home,  and  spends  his  time  at  play. 

5.  We  shall  pass  from  earth,  and  yield  our  homes  to  others. 

6.  Fruits  ripen  in  Autumn,  and  yield  us  rich  repasts. 

Other  MIXED  SENTENCES,  with  variable  Adjuncts. 

7.  "  For  Spring  shall  return,  and  a  lover  bestow." 

8.  "  The  leaves  mount  up  and  wash  the/ace  of  heaven." 

9.  "In  silence  majestic  they  twinkle  on  high, 

And  draw  admiration  from  every  eye." 

10.  "  Its  little  joys  go  out  one  by  one, 

And  leave  poor  man,  at  length,  in  perfect  night." 

11.  "  But  the  black  blast  blows  hard, 

And  puffs  them  wide  of  hope." 

12.  "  Wreaths  of  smoke  ascend  through  the  trees, 

And  betray  the  half- hidden  cottage." 


EXERCISES    IN    ANALYSIS.  57 

COMPLEX    SENTENCES. 
1.    THE   AUXILIARY    SENTENCES. — SUBSTANTIVE. 

1.  "  That   all  men  are  created  equal  is  a  self-eviden[ 
truth." 


. 

{(  "  That  all  men  ) 
The  Subject.  .  \        are  created  >-  a  Sentence. 
\        equal." 
("Is"  ......  [a  Verb  arid 
The  Predicate.  .  j  u  Truth,,  ;  ;  ;  -  j     a  Noum 

C  Of  the  Subject  ----    - 

ADJUNCT  ELEMENTS.  \  n^f7^  PVW;,,^/,,  j  "A." 
(  °f  t/ie  ^rec      jte'  \  «  Self- 


Self-evident." 

ANALYSIS  of  the  Auxiliary  Sentence. 

(  The  Subject  .....  "  Men." 
PRINCIPAL  ELEMENTS.  |  The  PrJediGat^  ^  Are  created." 

,  ^  (Of  the  Subject  .  .  .  .  u  All"  .  .  a  Word. 

ADJUNCT  ELEMENTS,  j  Oy  ^  Predicate.  .  "  Equal."* 


ADDITIONAL   COMPLEX   SENTENCES, 

Having  SUBSTANTIVE  SENTENCES  for  their  SUBJECTS. 

2.  "  '  lean  not,'  has  never  accomplished  anything." 

3.  '*  '  I  will  try,'  has  done  wonders." 

4.  "  That  friendship  is  a  sacred  trust, 

That  friends  should  he  sincere  and  just, 

That  constancy  befits  them, 
Are  observations  on  the  case, 
That  savors  much  of  commonplace." 


*  A  word  substituted  for  the  Adverbial  Phrase,  "  [with]  equal  [rights}.19 


58  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR — PART   I. 

1.  "  But  Brutus  says  he  was  ambitious" 


C 


J(^_  **ya  J(QEDG 


Brutus  says  Cje_X\vaB  t     ambitious 


Subject "  Brutus" a  Word. 

PRINCIPAL    I  The  Predicate. . . "  Says" a  Word. 

ELEMENTS..  1  mi      n^    *  (  "He  was  am-  )      Q 

Ine  Object....  \      ,.  .       „        \  a  Sentence. 
(      bitious     . .  [ 

ADJUNCT  ELEMENTS. — None. 


ADDITIONAL   COMPLEX   SENTENCES, 

Having  SUBSTANTIVE  SENTENCES  for  their  OBJECTS. 

2.  "  Go  to  the  raging  sea,  and  say,  *  Be  still." 

/3.  "  But  tell  not  Misery's  son  that  life  is  fair.' 

4.  "  '  And  this  to  me  ?'  he  said." 

5.  "  Cassar  cried,  '  Help  me,  Oassius,  or  I  sink.'  " 

6.  "  While  man  exclaims,  '  See  all  things  for  my  uss," 

7.  •  '  See  man  for  mine,'  replies  a  pampered  goose." 

8.  "  '  Will  you  walk  into  my  parlor  ?' 

Said  a  spider  to  a  fly." 

9.  "  He  knew  not  that  the  chieftain  lay 

Unconscious  of  his  son." 

10.  "  He  shouted  but  once  more  aloud, 

*  My  father  !  must  I  stay  ?'  " 

11.  "  We  bustle  up  with  unsuccessful  speed, 

And  in  the  saddest  part  cry,  '  Droll,  indeed  /" 

12.  "  Then  Agrippa  said  unto  Paul,  *  Almost  thou  persuadest  me  to 

be  a  Christian. '  ' ' 

13.  "A  celebrated  writer  says,  'Take  care  of  the  minutes,  and  the 

hours  will  take  care  of  themselves.'  " 

14.  *'  The  little  birds,  at  morning  dawn, 

Clothed  in  warm  coats  of  feather, 
Conclude  that  they  away  will  roam 
To  seek  for  milder  weather. ' ' 

15.  "  I  tell  thee  thou  art  defied." 


EXERCISES    IN    ANALYSIS. 


59 


AUXILIARY   SENTENCES. — ADJECTIVE. 

1.  "  But  they  that  fight  for  freedom,  undertake 

The  noblest  cause  mankind  can  have  at  stake" 


c 


A   COMPLEX   SENTENCE. 
ANALYSIS  '  of  the  PRINCIPAL  SENTENCE, 


(  The  Subject  ....."  They" 
JRINCIPAL   \ThQprJdicate  .aUncfertake 
ELEMENTS.      The  ^^       >  Cause>, 


ADJUNCT 
ELEMENTS. 


Of  the  Predicate  .. 


"The" a  Word. 

;c  Noblest" a  Word. 

Of  the  Object  .1  "  [That]  man-  ) 

kind  can  have  >•  a  Sentence, 
at  stake" . . . .  ) 

ANALYSIS   of  the  FIRST   AUXILIARY   SENTENCE. 

_,  j  The  Subject "  That." 

ELEMENTS,  j  The  PrJedicate c<  Kght » 


PRINCIPAL 

ADJUNCT    )  Of  the  Subject . . .  - 
ELEMENTS.  J  Of  the  Predicate.  "For  freedom",  a  Phrase. 

ANALYSIS   of  the   SECOND   AUXILIARY   SENTENCE. 

(  The  Sutyect "  Mankind." 

PRINCIPAL  ELEMENTS.  4  The  Predicate  . . "  Can  have." 

(  The  Object . . .  [That]  understood. 


ADJUNCT 
ELEMENTS. 


Of  the  Subject 

Of  the  Predicate . . "  At  stake" a  Phrase. 

Of  the  Object 


60  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR — PART   I. 

Thus  analyze  and  place  in  the  same  Diagram  the  following 

ADDITIONAL    SENTENCES. 

3".  And  students  who  love  to  study,  merit  the  highest  honors  which 
teachers  can  give  them. 

4.  And  actions  which  were  founded  in  justice,  produced  the  good 

results  which  we  had  in  view. 

5.  "But  such  as  seek  for  truth  shall  find  the  richest  boon  which  God 

to  man  can  give." 

6.  "  And  I  who  bleed  for  thee, 

Shall  claim  the  brightest  gift 
Which  thou  canst  yield  to  me0" 

7.  "  But  he  who  wins  at  last, 

Shall  love  the  very  toils 
Which  fortime  round  him  cast." 

THE  -ADJUNCTS   VARY. 

8.  "He  that  walketh  uprightly  walketh  surely." 

9.  "  There  is  something  in  their  hearts  which  passes  speech." 

10.  "  He  is  in  the  way  of  life  that  keepeth  instruction." 

11.  "I  love  the  bright  and  glorious  sun 

That  gives  us  light  and  heat ; 

12.  I  love  the  pearly  drops  of  dew 

That  sparkle  'neath  my  feet. 

13.  I  love  to  think  of  him  who  made 

These  pleasant  things  for  me." 

14.  ' '  The  boy  stood  on  the  burning  deck, 

Whence  all  but  him  had  fled  : 

15.  The  flames  that  lit  the  battle's  wreck, 

Shone  round  him  o'er  the  dead." 

16.  "I  love  to  hear  the  little  birds 

That  carol  on  the  trees." 

17.  "  Poverty  and  shame  shall  be  to  him  that  refuseth  instruction." 

18.  "  Wisdom  resteth  in  the  heart  of  him  that  hath  understanding." 

19.  "  Understanding  is  a  well-spring  of  life  to  him  that  hath  it." 

20.  "  But  the  noblest  thing  that  perished  there 

Was  that  young  faithful  heart." 

21.  "  Thou  hast  green  laurel  leaves  that  twine 

Into  so  proud  a  wreath. 

22.  Thou  hast  a  voice  whose  thrilling  tones 

Can  bid  each  life-pulse  beat."     (Page  269,  Note  1.) 


EXERCISES    IN    ANALYSIS. 


61 


23. 


24. 


25. 


Around  Sebago's  lonely  lake 
There  lingers  not  a  breeze  to  break 
The  mirror  which  its  waters  make." 
*  Cold  in  the  dust  this  perished  heart  may  lie, 
But  that  which  warmed  it  once  shall  never  die." 
He  that  by  usury  and  unjust  gain  increaseth  his  substance. 
shall  gather  it  for  him  that  will  pity  the  poor." 

Let  the  Pupil  place  Sentence  25  in  the  subjoined  Diagram 


1.  "  Our  proper  bliss  depends  on  whafwe  blame" 

C  bliss  Y  depends  j 


(Our  X       proper     ) 


A  COMPLEX   SENTENCE — THE  AUXILIARY   QUALIFIES   A   PHBASE. 

Elements.  Offices. 

"Our" Adjunct  of «' bliss." 

"  Proper" Adjunct  of  "  bliss." 

"  Bliss" Subject  of  "depends." 

"  Depends"  .    , Predicate  of  "  bliss." 

"  On  what  we  blame" f. Adjunct  of  "  depends.1 

"  What  "    5  CThafl 0bjeCt  °f  "  °n'" 

<  [Which] Object  of  "blame." 

11  We" Subject  of  u  blame." 

'  *  Blame' '  .  Predicate  of  ' '  we. ' ' 


ADDITIONAL   EXAMPLES. 

2.  "What  thou  dost  not  know  thou  canst  not  tell." 

3.  "I  speak  not  to  disprove  what  Brutus  spoke." 

4.  "  Seek  not  to  know  what  i-i  improper  for  thee." 

5.  "  But  here  I  stand  and  speak  wiiat  I  do  know." 

,6 


62 


ENGLISH   GRAMMAR — PART   I. 


AUXILIARY   SENTENCES. ADVERBIAL. 

1.  "And  when  its  yellow  luster  smiled 

O^er  mountains  yet  untrod, 
Each  mother  held  aloft  her  child. 
To  bless  the  bow  of  God." 


(  its  )  f  yellow  )    /  h'er : \  \ 

V /  V        — J    (  y  >v     mountains     )  | 

' X          (    untr*d    )      / 


ANALYSIS   of  the   PRINCIPAL    SENTENCE. 
FIRST    MODEL. 


T*  (  The  Subject "  Mother" . . 

PRINCIPAL  \  Th  Prejdicate  • ; ; ; « Held,, 

ELEMENTS.  |  The  Q^  *%^ 


ADJUNCT 
ELEMENTS. 


Transitive. 


Of  the  Subject  .  .  "  Each"  ......  a  Word. 

'"Altft"  ........  ..a  Word. 

"  When  its  yellow  ^ 

luster  smiled  o'er     a  Sentence 


Of  the 
Predicate.  * 


mountains  yet  un-  (  (Adverbial). 

trod" J 

"To  bless  the  bow  ' 


a  Phrase. 


) 

of  God" [J 

Of  the  Object "  Her"  .  ? a  Word. 


SECOND  MODEL. 


Elements.  Offices. 

tf  And" Introduces  the  Principal  Sentence. 

«  When  its  yellow  luster  smiled    >  ^  .Adjunct  of  -  held." 

0  er  mountains  yet  untrod,"  ) 

"  Each" Adjunct  of  "  mother." 

"  Mother"   Subject  of  "held." 

' '  Held' ' . .  . .  Predicate  of « '  mother.' ' 


EXERCISES   IN   ANALYSIS.  63 

"Aloft" „ Adjunct  of  "held." 

"  Her" Adjunct  of  "child." 

"  Child" Object  of  "  held." 

"To  bless  the  bow  of  God" Adjunct  of  "  held." 

ANALYSIS   of  the  AUXILIARY   SENTENCE. 

"  When" .Introduces  the  Auxiliary  Seriienee. 

"Its" ... Adjunct  of  "luster." 

"  Yellow" Adjunct  of  "luster." 

"  Luster" Subject  of  "  smiled." 

"  Smiled" Predicate  of  "  luster." 

"O'er  mountains  yet  untrod" Adjunct  of  "smiled." 

ANALYSIS   of  the  ADJUNCT  PHRASES. 

"To" Introduces  the  Phrase — connects  "bless"  with  "  held." 

"Bless" Object  of  "  to." 

"The'7 Adjunct  of  "  bow." 

"Bow" Object  of  "bless." 

"  Of  God" Adjunct  of  '« bow." 

"Of" Introduces  the  Phrase — connects  "  God"  with  "bow." 

" God" Object  of  "of." 

"O'er"..  .0. .  .Introduces  the  Phrase — connects  "  mountains"  with 
"smiled." 

"Mountains" .Object  of  "o'er." 

"  Yet" Adjunct  of  "  untrod." 

"  Untrod" Adjunct  of  "  mountains." 


1  Thus  analyze  the  following  ADDITIONAL  EXAMPLES. 

2.  "  Wherefore  is  there  a  price  in  the  hand  of  a  fool  to  get  wisdom, 

seeing  he  hath  no  heart  to  it. ' ' 

3.  "  Yet  do  I  feel  my  soul  recoil*  within  me, 

As  I  contemplate  the  dim  gulf  of  death. ' ' 

4.  "If  we  have  ivhispered  truth, 

Whisper  no  longer." 
6.   "  Speak  as  the  tempest  does, 
Sterner  and  stronger. ' ' 

6.  "The  hoary  head  is  a  crown  of  glory,  if  it  be  found  in  the  way 

of  righteousness." 

7.  "Their  advancement  in  life  and  in  education  was  such  that  each 

ought  to  have  been  a  gentleman." 

*  Page  269,  Note  I. 


4:  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR PART   I. 

8.  "  The  sweet  REMEMBRANCE  of  the  just, 

SHALL  FLOURISH  when  he  sleeps  in  dust. ' ' 

9.  "  But,  when  he  caught  the  measure  wild, 

The  old  man  raised  his  head  and  smiled." 

10.  "  There  are  sumptuous  mansions  with  marble  walls, 

Where  fountains  play  in  the  perfumed  halls." 

11.  "The  earth  hath  felt  the  breath  of  spring, 

Though  yet  on  her  deliverer's  wing 
The  lingering  frosts  of  winter  cling." 


EXAMPLES 

Of  SUBSTANTIVE,  ADJECTIVE,  and  ADVERBIAL  SENTENCES. 


Let  the  Pupil  name  the  Sentence  below  adapted  to  this  Dia- 
gram, and  place  it  in  an  exact  copy,  written  on  the  black-board. 

1.  "If  you  would  know  the  deeds  of  him  who  chews, 

Enter  the  house  of  God,  and  see  the  pews." 

2.  ' '  The  man  that  dares  traduce  because  he  can 

"With  safety  to  himself,  is  not  a  man." 

3.  "And,  as  1  passed  by,  1  heard  the  complaints  of  the  laborers  who 

had  reaped  down  his  fields,  and  the  cries  of  the  poor  whose 
covering  he  had  taken  away." 

4.  "The  time  must  come  when  all  will  have  been  said  that  can  be 

said  to  exalt  the  character^  any  individual  of  our  race." 
6.   "Mysterious  are  his  ways,  whose  power 

Brings  forth  that  unexpected  hour, 

When  minds  that  never  met  before, 

Shall  meet,  unite,  and  part  no  more." 
6.  "  My  heart  is  awed  within  me  when  I  think 

Of  the  great  miracle  that  still  goes  on, 

In  silence  round  me.  * 


EXERCISES   IN   ANALYSIS.  65 

7.  "When  we  consider  "carefully  what*  appeals  to  our  minds,  and 

exercise  upon  ib  our  own  reason  -r-  taking  into  respectful  con- 
sideration what*  others  say  upon  it—  and  then  corne  to  a  con- 
clusion of  our  own,  we  act  as  intelligent  beings." 

8.  "Before  we  passionately  desire  what*  another  enjoys,  we  should 

examine  into  the  happiness  of  its  possessor." 

9.  '  '  With  what  loud  applause  didst  thou  beat  heaven  with  blessing 

Bolingbroke,  before  he  was  what  thou  wouldst  have  him  be  !" 


*  PROMISCUOUS  EXAMPLES. 

N  1.  "The  troubled  ocean  feels  his  steps,  as  he  strides  from  wave  to 
wave."          , 

2.  "  Beneath  the  spear  of  Cathmar  rose  that  voice  which  awakes  the 

bards," 

3.  "As  they  sat  down,  one  said  to  his   friend  on  his  right,   'We 

shall  soon  see  who  is  who.'  " 

4.  "He  sunk  to  sleep 

With  all  the  nameless  shapes  that  haunt  the  deep." 

5.  "  Go  to  the  mat  where  squalid  Want  refines, 

6.  Go  to  the  shade  obscure  where  Merit  pines, 

7.  Abide  with  him  wham  Penury  s  charms  control  — 
And  bind  the  rising  yearnings  of  his  soul."\ 

8.  Survey  his  sleepless  couch,  and,  standing  there, 
Tell  the  poor  pallid  wretch  that  life  is  fair." 

9.  "It  must  be  sweet,  in  childhood,  to  give  back 

The  spirit  to  its  Maker,  ere  the  heart 
Has  grown  familiar  with  the  ways  of  em." 

10.  "  Wheresoe'er  our  best  affections  dwell, 
And  strike  a  healthful  root,  is  happiness." 

11.  "A  man  of  refinement  never  has  recourse  to  proverbs  and  vulgar 

aphorisms." 

12.  "Across  the  ocean  came  a  pilgrim  bark." 

13.  '  '  The  bark  of  the  trunk  of  the  white  oak  is  frequently  variegated  with 

large  spots." 

11.   "  The  uojd  of  the  young  stocks  is  very  elastic,  and  is  susceptible  of 
minute  divisions." 

15.  "  The  flowers  put  fortfi  in  the  month  of  May." 

16,  "  Night,  sable  goddess,  from  her  ebon  throne, 

In  rayless  majesty,  now  stretches  forth 

Her  leaden  scepter  o'er  a  slumbering  world." 

*  Pages  92  and  222.  t  See  Key,  p.  86. 

6* 


>O  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR PART    I. 

17.  "  Vulgarism  in  language  is  a  distinguishing  characteristic  of  bad 

company  and  a  bad  education." 

18.  "  The  wood  of  the  silver  fir  is  not  much  used  as  timber." 

19.  "  The  hemlock  spruce  is  not  much  esteemed  for  timber." 

20.  "  Milton's  learning  has  all  the  effect  of  intuition." 

21.  "  His  imagination  has  the  force  of  nature." 

22.  "  Heaven  from  all  creatures  hides  the  book  of  fate." 

23.  "  And  as  Jesus  passed  by,  he  saw  a  man  who  was  blind.'1 

24.  "  If  a  noble  squire  had  conducted  himself  well  during  the  period 

of  his  service,  the  honor  of  knighthood  was  generally  con- 
ferred upon  him  at  the  age  of  twenty." 

25.  "  Another  bright  day's  sunset  bathes  the  hills 

That  gird  Samaria. ' ' 

26.  "  One  glance  of  wonder,  as  we  pass,  deserves 

The  books  of  Time." 

27.  "A  fretful  temper  will  divide 

The  choicest  knot  that  may  be  tied, 
By  ceaseless,  sharp  corrosion. 

28.  A  temper,  passionate  and  fierce, 
May  suddenly  your  joys  disperse 

At  one  immense  explosion." 

29.  "  But  no  mere  human  work  or  character  is  perfect." 

30.  "  The  profoundest  depths  of  man's  intellect  can  be  fathomed." 

31.  "In  the  loftiest  flights  of  his  imagination,  he  can  be  followed." 

32.  "  None  of  his  richest  mines  are  inexhaustible." 

33.  * '  Then  began  he  to  upbraid  the  cities  wherein  most  of  his  mighty 

works  were  done,  because  they  repented  not. ' ' 

34.  "  That  secrets  are  a  sacred  trust, 

That  friends  should  be  sincere  and  just, 

That  constancy  befits  them — 
Are  observations  on  the  case, 
That  savor  much  of  commonplace  ; 

35.  And  all  the  world  admits  them." 

36.  "  The  dilatory  caution  of  Pope  enabled  him  to  condense  his  sen- 

timents, to  multiply  bis  images,  and  to  accumulate  all  that 
study  might  produce  or  chance  supply." 

37.  "  Dryden  often  surpasses  expectation — 

38.  Pope  never  falls  below  it." 

39.  "  Dryden  is  read  with  frequent  astonishment — 

40.  Pope,  with  perpetual  delight." 

HEM. — For  the  encouragement  of  Pupils  who  may  not  be  able  prop- 


EXERCISES    IN    SENTENCES.  67 

erly  to  analyze  the  more  difficult  of  the  preceding  Sentences,  the  fol- 
lowing Exercises  are  simplified — 

1 .  The  Principal  Elements  of  the  Principal  Sentences  are  printed  in 

SMALL  CAPITALS  J 

2.  The  Principal  Elements  of  the  Auxiliary  Sentences  are  printed  in 
Italic  letters  ; 

3.  The  letters  in  the  margin  refer  to  the  appropriate  DIAGRAMS  (for 
the  Principal  Elements  only)  on  page  45  ; 

4.  The  forms  and  the  offices  of  the  Phrases  are  indicated  by  appropri- 
ate references. 

THE  AMERICAN  FLAG. — J.  R.  Drake. 

B.     When  Freedom,  from  her  mountain  height,  *b 
Unfurled  her  standard  to  the  air,*6 

1.  I.     SHE  TORE  the  azure  ROBE  of  night*a 

And  SET  the  STARS  of  glory*a  there ; 

2.  I.     SHE  MINGLED  with  the  gorgeous  dyes*a 

The  milky  BALDRIC  of  the  skies,  *a 
And  STRIPED  its  pure  celestial  WHITE 
With  streakings*6  of  the  morning  light  ;*a 
Then,  from  his  mansion*6  in  the  sun,*6 

3.  I.     SHE  CALLED  her  EAGLE-BEARER  down, 

And  GAVE  into  his  mighty  hand*6 
The  SYMBOL  of  her  chosen  land.*a 

Majestic  monarch  of  the  cloud, *a 
B.         Who  rearst  aloft  thy  regal  form, 

To  hear  the  tempest-trumpings  loud,|5 

And  see  the  lightning  lancesf b  driven,  f5 
A.        When  strike  the  warriors  of  the  storm, *« 
A.  And  rolls  the  thunder-drum  of  heaven, *a 

A.  Child  of  the  Sun,*  to  thee*6  'TIS  GIVEN, 

To  guard  the  bannerfc  of  the  free,*a 
To  hoverfc  in  the  sulphur  smoke,  *b 
To  ward  away  the  battle-stroke, fc 
And  bid  its  blendingsfc  shine  afar,|6 
Like  rainbows,  *b  on  the  cloud*6  of  war,*a 
The  harbinger  of  victory.  *a 


*  Prepositional  Phrase.  t  Infinitive  Phrase. 

a  Adjective  Phrase.  &  Adverbial  Phrase.  c  Independent  Phrase. 


68  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR — PART   I. 

5      A.  /''Flag  of  the  brave,  *a  thy  FOLDS  SHALL  FLY — 

The  sign  of  hope  and  triumph *a — high./ 
A.    /When  speaks  the  signal  trumpet-tone, 

A.  And  the  long  line  comes  gleaming  on, 

B.  (Ere  yet  the  life-blood,  warm  and  wet, 
Has  dimmed  the  glist'ning  bayonet), 

6.     M.    Each  soldier's  EYE  SHALL  brightly  TURN 
A.     To  where  thy  meteor-glories  burn,*b 

A.  And,  as  his  springing  steps  advance, 

CATCH  WAR  and  VENGEANCE  from  the  glance  ;|6 

B.  (And,  when  the  cannon-mouthinas  loud 

Heave,  in  wild  wreaths,  *b  the  battle-shroud, 

C.  And  gory  sabers  rise  and/^ZZ, 

Like  shoots*6  of  flame*a  on  midnight's  pall,*6 
7o     A.     There  SHALL  thy  VICTOR-GLANCES  GLOwy 

8.  A.         And  cowering  FOES  SHALL  SHRINK  beneath 
A.     Each  gallant  arm*6  that  strikes  below 

That  lovely  messenger*^  of  death. *o) 

Flag  of  the  seas,*#  on  ocean's  wave,*6 

9.  A.     Thy  STARS  SHALL  GLITTER  o'er  the  brave  J*6 
A.     When  death,  careering  .on  the  gale,*6 

Sweeps  darkly  round  the  bellied  sail,*6 
A.     And  frightened  waxes  rush  wildly  back, 
Before  the  broadside's  reeling  rack,*6 

10.  C.     The  dying  WANDERER  of  the  sea*a 

SHALL  LOOK  at  once*6  to  heaven  and  thee,*6 
And  SMILE  to  see  thy  splendorsfi  fly)  b 
In  triumph*&  o'er  his  closing  eye.*6 

Flag  of  the  free  heart's  only  home,*<z 
By  angel-hands*6  to  valor*6  given, 

11.  B,     Thy  STARS  HAVE  LIT  the  welkin  DOME, 

12.  A.         And  all  thy  HUES  WERE  BORN  in  heaven  :*b 

13.  B.     For  ever*£>  FLOAT  that  standard  SHEET  ! 

14.  A.         Where  BREATHES  the  FOE  but  falls  before  us,*6 

WithJ  Freedom's  soil  beneath  our  feet,*6 
And  Freedom's  banner  streaming  o'er  us?*Z> 

$  See  page  233,  Obs.  7.    See  also  Key,  p.  45. 


PART  II. 

ETYMOLOGY. 


REMARK  1 . — In  PART  I.  we  have  considered — 

1.  The  Structure  of  Sentences  and  of  Phrases  ; 

2.  The  Elements  which  compose  a  Sentence  or  a  Phrase  ; 

3.  The  Classification  of  Sentences  and  of  Phrases  ; 

4.  The  Analysis  of  Sentences — Proximate  and  Ultimate. 

REM.  2. — In  our  progress  through  PART  I.  we  have  seen, 

1.  That  the  Proximate  Analysis  of  a  Sentence  consists  in  resolving 

it  into  its  immediate  Constituent  Elements. 

2,  That  the  Ultimate  Analysis  of  a  Sentence  consists  in  reducing  its 

Proximate  Elements  to  the  WORDS  which  com  pose*  them. 

REM.  3. — We  have  next  to  consider  the  history  of  WORDS — considered 
as  ultimate  Elements  of  Sentences— including 


1.  Their  Formation. 

2.  Their  Functions. 


3.  Their  Classifications. 

4.  Their  Modifications. 


The  Science  of  Language  embraces, 

1.  ORTHOGRAPHY — which  treats  of  the  Structure  and 

Form  of  Words. 

2.  ETYMOLOGY — which   treats   of  the    Classification 

and  Modification  of  Words. 

3.  SYNTAX — wfcich  treats  of  the  Relation  and  mutual 

Dependence  of  Words. 

4.  PROSODY — which  treats  of  the  Arrangement  and 

Utterance  of  Words. 

REM. — A  true  system  of  Analysis  requires  that  the  Functions  of  Words 
be  discussed  previous  to  the  consideration  of  their  Elements.  Hence 
we  have  placed  an  outline  of  ORTHOGRAPHY  in  the  Appendix  to  this 
Work. 


70  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR PART   II. 

CLASSIFICATION    AND   MODIFICATION    OF    WORDS. 

Words  are  distinguished  by  their  Forms  and  by  their 

Uses. 

1.    THE   FORMS   OF   WORDS. 

By  their  forms,  Words  are  distinguished  as 
Radical  or  Derivative, 
Simple  or  Compound. 

DEF.  52. — A  Radical  "Word  is  a  word  that  does  not 
derive  its  original  from  another  word  in  the  same  lan- 
guage. 

EXAMPLES. — Sun — cloud — rose — friend— chief— swift— just— sell. 

DEF.  53. — A  Derivative  Word  is  a  word  derived  from  a 
Radical,  by  prefixing  or  adding  one  or  more  letters  to  it. 

EXAMPLES. — Sunny — swiftly — cloudy — sinful — selling — unconscious 
— roseate — friendly— justify— chieftain. 

OBS.— A  Word  that  is  Radical  in  the  English  language,  may  be  a 
Derivative  in  the  language  from  which  it  comes. 

EXAMPLES. — Conscience — optics— algebra — philosophy — signify. 

DEF.  54. — A  Simple  Word  is  a  word  that  is  used  sepa- 
rately from  another  word. 

EXAMPLES.  — Have — brightly — freedom — parlor — music — study —  times 
— patience — loved — cottage — peace — cold. 

DEF.  55. — A  Compound  Word  is  a  word  that  is  made 
of  two  or  more  words  combined. 

EXAMPLES  — Star-light — household- words— rose-bud  —  steam-engine 
— pencil-case — never- the-less — moon-beam — rail-road. 

OBS. — The  parts  of  a  Compound  Word  are  printed  as  one  word  with- 
out space  between  them,  or  they  are  joined  by  a  short  horizontal  line 
(-)  called  a  hyphen. 

EXAMPLES  (without  the  hyphen). — Overlay — underwrite — withstand — 

sometimes — nevertheless. 

"          (with  the  hyphen). — Hour-glass  —  warm-hearted  —  praise- 
worthy. 


CLASSIFICATION'  OF   WORDS.  71 

•v 

The  Parts  of  a  Compound  Word  are  the  BASIS  and  the 
ADJUNCT. 

DEF.  56.  —  The  JBasis  of  a  Compound  Word  is  the 
Principal  Element  in  the  word. 

EXAMPLES.  —  "Race-horse  —  horse-race  —  hour  -glass  —  sergeant-at-arms  — 
father-m-\3iw  —  a 


DEF.  57.  —  The  Adjunct  of  a  Compound  Word  is  the 
part  that  limits  or  modifies  the  Basis. 

EXAMPLES.  —  Race-horse  —  horse-rsice  —  hour-  glass  —  jack-o'  -lantern  — 
f&ther-iti-law  —  zid-de-camp. 

OBS.  —  The  Adjunct  of  a  Word  may  be  one  Word  or  a  Phrase. 

EXAMPLES.  —  One  Word.  —  Man-stealer  —  race-horse  —  &oo&-maker. 

A  Phrase.  —  ~F&ther-in-law  —  aid-de-camp  —  will-o'-the-wisp. 

EEM.  —  Derivative  and  Compound  Words  have  this  distinction,  viz.  : 
Compound  Words  consist  of  two  or  more  complete  Words  ;  whereas,  '  » 
Derivative  Words  consist  of  one  Word  with  Letters  or  Particles  prefixed 
or  attached.     These  Particles  are  called  PREFIXES  and  SUFFIXES. 

DEF.  58.  —  A  Prefix  is  one  or  more  letters  placed  "before 
a  Radical,  to  form  a  Derivative  Word. 

EXAMPLES.  —  Reform  —  degrade  —  overlook  —  undertake  —  involve  —  elect 
•—  a&solve  —  perfect, 

DEF.  59.  —  A  Suffix  is  one  or  more  letters  added  to  a 
Word,  to  make  it  Derivative. 

EXAMPLES.  —  Forming—  graded  —  homeZy  —  goodness. 

REM.—  "Words  may  have  more  than  one  Prefix  or  Suffix.     Hence, 

Prefixes  and  Suffixes  are   distinguished   as  Simple  or 
Compound. 

EXAMPLES   OF  SIMPLE. 


Prefixes. 

Suffixes. 

Absolve, 

Compose, 

Forming,              Takew, 

Dissolve,            Depose, 

Formation,            Verbose, 

Resolve, 

jfcpose, 

Dangerows,           Rudefy, 

Zkform, 

.Z&take, 

Coinage,                Hope/a/, 

Inform, 

Overtake, 

Goodness,             Consular, 

Uniform 

,           Undertake. 

Bigotry,                Lambkin. 

72 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR — PART   II. 


Prefixes. 
Re  con  struct, 
Mis  con  ceive, 
In  co  herent, 

Un  pre  tending, 
Ir  re  vocable, 
Im  per  forated. 


Suffixes. 
Lone  li  ness, 
Might  i  ly, 
Fear  less  ness, 

Eight  ful  ly, 
Form  a  tion, 
Modi  fi  cation. 


Prefixes  and  Suffixes. 
Re&ating, 
Dissolved, 
Conformable, 
[Reconciliation, 
Transubstantiation, 
Indissoluble. 


Abnegation, 

Confinement, 

Substantial, 

Unconditionally, 

Disseminating, 

Conformability. 


The  Radicals  of  Derivative  Words  are 
SEPARABLE  or  INSEPARABLE. 

DEF.  60, — A  Separable  Radical  constitutes  a  perfect 
Word,  without  its  Prefixes  or  Suffixes. 


Keform, 
Deform, 
Inform, 
Conform, 


form. 


Adjoin, 
Conjoin, 
Enjoin, 
Unjoin, 


join. 


DEF.  61. — An  Inseparable  Radical  is  not  used  as  a  dis- 
tinct word  in  the  language,  without  the  aid  of  its  Prefixes 
or  Suffixes. 


Collect, 

Delectable, 

Election, 

Recollect, 

Recollecting, 


led. 


Advert, 

Convertible, 

Diverting, 

Inversion, 

Undiverted, 


vert. 


. — For  an  extended  list  of  Prefixes  and  Suffixes,  see  "  Derivation 
of  Words' '  in  SANDERS'  ANALYSIS  OF  WORDS. 


NOUNS  —  CLASSIFICATION.  73 

II,     THE    USES   OF    WORDS. 

By  their  uses,  Words  are  distinguished  as 

1.  Nouns,          } 

2.  Pronouns,     >  Principal  Elements  in  Sentences. 

3.  Verbs  ,  ) 

4.  Adjectives,   )  A  %•       ,  T™ 

5.  Adverbs,       [Adjunct  Elements. 

6.  Prepositions,  \ 

Attendant  Events. 


, 
9.  Words  of  Euphony,  ) 


DEF.  62.  —  A  Noun  is  a  Word  used  as  the  Name  of  a 
being,  of  a  place,  or  of  a  thing. 

EXAMPLES.  —  "  The  king  of  shadows  loves  a  shining  mark." 
OBS.  1.  —  Nouns  are  names  of 

1.  Material  things,  as—  Man—  book—  house—  apples. 

2.  Ideas  or  things  not  material,  as  —  Mind  —  hope  —  desire  —  aversion  — 
remorse—  joy. 

OBS.  —  Let  the  Pupil  he  careful  here  to  distinguish  a  name  from  th$ 
thing  named  ;  and  remember  that  the  name  is  the  Noun.  Thus,  a  house 
is  a  thing  —  the  name  of  that  thing  is  a  Noun.  . 

CLASSIFICATION   OF   NOUNS. 

REMARK  .  —  Some  Nouns  are  appropriated  to  individual  persons  or 
places,  or  to  things  personified  ;  others  are  general  in  their  application, 
being  used  to  designate  classes  or  sorts.  Hence, 

Nouns  are  distinguished  as 

'Proper  and  Common. 

DEF.  63.  —  A  Proper  Noun  is  a  name  appropriated  to  an 
individual  person  or  place,  or  to  a  thing  personified. 

EXAMPLES.  —  William  —  Boston  —  Hudson  —  Oregon. 

"  And  old  Experience  learns  too  late 
That  all  is  vanity  below." 

7 


7£  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR — PART  II. 

DEF.  64, — A  Common  Noun  is  a  name  used  to  desig- 
nate one  or  more  of  a  class  or  sort  of  beings  or  things. 

EXAMPLES. — Man — book — conscience— feeling — landscape. 
"Now  fades  the  glimmering  landscape  on  the  siglri." 

OBS.  1. — Some  Common  Nouns  are  the  names  of  qualities. 

DEF.  65. — An  Abstract  Noun  is  the  name  of  a  quality 
of  a  thing,  and  not  of  the  Substance. 

EXAMPLES  . — Goodness — meekness — impracticability . 

DEF.  66. — A  Collective  Noun  is  a  Noun  that  is  Singular 
in  form  but  Plural  in  sense. 

EXAMPLES  . — Committee — assembly — army — tribe — clan — multitude. 
"  The  village  master  taught  his  little  school." 

DEF.  67. — A  Verbal  Noun  is  a  Noun  derived  from  a 
Verb ;  being  in  form,  a  Participle — in  office^  a  Substan- 
tive. 

EXAMPLES. — Beginning — gatherings — spelling — joining. 

"In  the  beginning,  God  created  the  heaven  and  the  earth." 

OBS.  1. — The  Classification  of  Nouns  as  Common  and  Proper,  is  one 
rather  of  curiosity  than  of  practical  utility  in  the  Science  of  Language. 

OBS.  2. — A  Word  is  known  to  be  a  Noun, 
1st.  By  its  being  a  Name. 
2d.    By  its  performing  a  Substantive  office. 

OBS.  3. — A  Substantive  may  be, 

1.  The  Subject  of  a  Sentence. 

2.  The  Object  of  a  Sentence  or  of  a  Phrase. 

3.  A  Name  or  an  Equivalent,  independent  in  construction. 

But, 

OBS.  4.— A  Substantive  office  may  be  performed  by  Words,  by  Phrases, 
and  by  Sentence*. 


NOUNS MODIFICATION.  75 

EXAMPLES. 

1.  By  Wtrds,  Nfuxs. — 1.  Paul  the  Apostle  wrote  an  Epistle  to  Timothy. 

PRONOUNS. — 2.  Was  ft  yow  that  introduced  me  to  7«'m  ? 

2.  "By  Phrases. — 3.   "Taking  a  madman's  sword,  to  prevent  his  doing 

mischief,  can  not  be  regarded  as  robbing  him. ' ' 

3.  By  Sentences. — 4.  "  That  all  men  are  created  equal,  is  a  self-evident 

truth." 

5.  "  But  Brutus  says,  he  was  ambitious." 

6.  "  There  is  no  question  as  to  which  must  yield.'1 

Hence, 

OBS.  5. — A  Noun  is  generally  Substantive.     But  a  Word  commonly 
used  as  a  Noun  may  become, 

1.  An  Adjective  ;  as,  An  iron  fence — gold  leaf. 

2.  An  Adverb  ;  as,  Go  home  and  come  lack. 

3.  A  Verb ;  as,  "  But  if  you  mouth  it." 

OBS.  6. — A  Substantive  office  is  sometimes  performed  by  words  com- 
monly used — 

(a.)  As  Adjectives. — 1.  "  The  good  alone  are  great." 

2.   **  Nor  grudge  I  thee  the  much  the  Grecians  give, 

Nor,  murm'ring,  take  the  little  I  receive." — Dryden. 
"(6.)   As  Adverbs. — 3.   "  'Tis  Heaven  itself  that  points  out  an  here- 
after. " — Addison. 
(c.)  As   Conjunctions. — 4.   <c  Your  if  is  the   only  peace-maker ; 

much  virtue  is  in  if." — Shakspeare. 

(d.)  As  an  Exclamation. — 5.   "With   hark  and   whoop  and  wild 
hattoo."— Scott. 


MODIFICATION   OF   NOUNS. 

BEM. — Some  Nouns  and  Pronouns,  by  their  form,  by  their  position 
in  a  Sentence,  or  by  their  obvious  uses,  indicate — 

1.  The  sex — as  male  or  female,  or  neither. 

2.  fne  speaker,   the  being  addressed,  or  the  being  or  thing 

spoken  of. 

3.  The  number  of  beings  or  things — as  one  or  more. 

4.  The  condition,  with  regard  to  other  Words  in  the  Sentence,  as 

(1.)  The  Subject  of  a  Sentence. 

(2.)  The  Object  of  a  Sentence  or  of  a  Phrase. 

(3.)  Independent  in  construction.     Hence, 


76  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR — PART    II. 

Nouns  are  modified  by   Gender,  Person,  Number,  and 

Case. 

GENDEK. 

DEF.  68. — Gender  is  the  modification  of  such  Nouns 
and  Pronouns  as,  by  their  form,  distinguish  the  sex. 

DEF.  69. — Nouns  and  Pronouns  that  indicate  Males  are 
of  the  Masculine  Gender. 

EXAMPLES. — Man — lion — ox — David — John. 

DEF.  70. — Nouns  and  Pronouns  indicating  Females  are 
of  the  Feminine  Gender. 

EXAMPLES. — Woman — lioness— cow — Dollie — Jane. 

DEF.  71. — Nouns  and  Pronouns  that  do  not  indicate  the 
sex,  are  said  to  be  of  the  Neuter  Gender. 
EXAMPLES. — Book — pen — table — star — planet. 

OBS.  1. — Strict  propriety  will  allow  the  names  of  animals  only,  to  be 
modified  by  Gender. 

OBS.  2. — Young  animals  and  infants  are  not  always  distinguished  by 
Gender  ;  as,  "  Mary's  kitten  is  very  playful — it  is  quite  a  pet  with  the 
whole  family." 

"  Calm  as  an  infant  as  it  sweetly  sleeps." 

OBS.  3.  —Things  personified  are  often  represented  by  Pronouns  of  the 
Masculine  or  of  the  Feminine  Gender. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  "  Then  Fancy  her  magical  pinions  spread  wide." 

2.   "  Time  slept  on  flowers,  and  lent  his  glass  to  Hope." 
C.  * '  For  the  Angel  of  Death  spread  his  wings  on  the  blast, 
And  breathed  in  the  face  of  the  foe  as  he  pass'd." 

OBS.  4. — Many  Nouns  which  denote  the  office  or  condition  of  per- 
sons, and  some  others,  are  not  distinguished  by  Gender. 
EXAMPLES. — Parent — cousin — friend — neighbor — teacher. 

OBS.  5. — Whenever  Words  are  used  which  include  both  Males  and 
Females,  without  having  a  direct  reference  to  the  sex,  the  Word  appro- 
priated to  males  is  commonly  employed. 


NOUNS — GENDER. 


EXAMPLES. — 1.  "  The  proper  study  of  mankind  is  man." 

2.   "  There  is  no  flesh  in  mans  obdurate  heart — 

It  does  not  feel  for  man." 
But  to  this  rule  there  are  exceptions ;  as,  geese,  ducks. 


The  Gender  of  Nouns  is  determined 
1.  By  the  termination ;  as, 


Masc. 

Fern. 

Masc. 

Actor, 

Actress. 

Patron, 

Administrator, 

Administratrix. 

Prince, 

Author, 

Authoress. 

Protector, 

Governor, 

Governess.    • 

Shepherd, 

Heir, 

Heiress. 

Songster, 

Host, 

Hostess. 

Tiger, 

Hero, 

Heroine. 

Tutor, 

Jew, 

Jewess. 

Tailor, 

Lion, 

Lioness. 

Widower, 

2,  By  different  Words;  as, 


Masc. 
Bachelor 
Beau, 
Boy, 
Brother, 
Drake, 
Father, 
Friar, 


Fern. 
Maid. 
Belle. 
Girl. 
Sister. 
Duck. 
Mother 
Nun. 


Masc. 
Husband, 
King, 
Lad, 
Lord, 
Man, 
Master, 
Nephew, 


Fern. 

Patroness. 
Princess. 
•  Protectress. 
Shepherdess. 
Songstress. 
Tigress. 
Tutoress. 
Tailoress 
Widow. 


Fern. 
Wife. 
Queen. 
Lass. 
Lady. 
Woman. 
Mistress. 
Niece. 


3.  By  prefixing  or  affixing  other  Words ;  as, 

Masc.  Fern. 

Man-servant,  Maid-servant. 

He-goat,  She-goat. 

Cock-sparrow,  Hen-sparrow. 

Landlord,  Landlady. 

Gentleman,  Gentlewoman. 

NOTE.— In  the  English  language,  less  importance  is  attached  to  the 
Gender  of  Nouns  than  in  the  Latin,  Greek,  and  other  languages— the 
relation  of  "Words  in  Sentpnces  depeiriim:  more  upon  portion  and  less 
upon  the  terminitions.  Hence,  in  parsing  Nouns  and  Pronouns  Ihe 
Gen.ler  need  not  be  mentioned,  unless  they  are  obviously  Masculine  or 
Feminine. 

T* 


78  ENGLISH   GKAJdfMAR — PART   II.  ^ 

V 

PERSON. 
KEM. — All  Nouns  are  the  Names  of 

1.  The  persons  speaking. 

2.  The  persons  or  things  addressed.    Or, 

3.  The  persons  or  things  spoken  of.     Hence, 

Nouns  and  Pronouns  are  of  the 

First  Person,  Second  Person,  or  Third  Person. 

DEF.  72. — The  name  of  the  speaker  or  writer  is  of  the 
First  Person. 

EXAMPLES. — "  1,  John,  saw  these  things." 
"  We  Athenians  are  in  fault." 

DEF.  73. — The  name  of  a  person  or  thing  addressed,  is 
of  the  Second  Person. 

EXAMPLE. —  "  Father,  thy  hand 

Hath  reared  these  venerable  columns  ;  th 

Didst  weave  this  verdant  roof." 

DEF.  74. — The  name  of  the  person  or  thing  spoken  of, 
is  of  the  Third  Person. 

EXAMPLES. — "  The  hero  hath  departed." 
"Honor  guides  his  footsteps." 

NUMBER. 

REM. — Nouns  by  their  form,  denote  individuality  or  plurality. 
Hence, 

Nouns  are  distinguished  as 

Singular  and  Plural. 
DEF.  75. — Nouns  denoting  but  one,  are  of  the 

/Singular  Number. 
EXAMPLES. — Man — boy— pen — book — mouse — ox. 

DEF.  76. — Nouns  denoting  more  than  one,  are  of  the 
Plural  Number. 

EXAMPLES.  — Men — boys — pens — books — mice — oxen. 

OBS.  1. — The  Number  of  a  Noun  is  usually  determined  by  its  form. 
The  Plural  of  most  Nouns  differs  from  the  Singular,  by  having  an 
additional  s. 


NOUNS — NUMBER.  79 

EXAMPLES. 

Singular.—  Act,         Egg,         Book,         Mastiff,         Pen,         Chair. 
Plural. — Acts,       Eggs,       Books,       Mastiffs,       Pens,       Chairs. 

OBS.  2. — But  a  Noun  whose  Singular  form  ends  in  s,  ss,  sh,  x,  ch  (soft), 
and  some  Nouns  in  o  and  y,  form  the  Plural  by  the  addition  of  es. 

EXAMPLES. 

Singular. — Gas,        Lynx,        Church,        Lash,       Glass,       Hero. 
Plural.—  Gases,     Lynxes,     Churches,     Lashes,    Glasses,   Heroes. 

OBS.  3.— Y  final,  after  a  Consonant,  is  changed  into  ie  (the  original 
orthography),  and  s  is  added. 

.EXAMPLES. 

Singular. — Lady,  Folly,  Quality,  City. 

Oldform. — Ladie,  Follie,  Qualitie,  Citie. 

Plural.— Ladies,  Follies,  Qualities,  Cities. 

Exception. — But  Proper  Nouns  in  y  commonly  form  the  Plurals  by 
adding  s  to  the  y ;  as,  the  two  Livys— the  Tullys. 

OBS.  4. — In  the  following  Nouns,  /  final  is  changed  into  v,  and  the 
usual  termination  for  the  Plural  is  added : 


Singular 

Plural. 

Singular. 

Plural. 

Beef, 

Beeves. 

Self, 

Selves. 

Calf, 

Calves. 

Shelf, 

Shelves. 

Elf, 

Elves. 

Sheaf, 

Sheaves. 

Half, 

Halves. 

Thief, 

Thieves. 

Leaf, 

Leaves. 

Wolf, 

Wolves 

Loaf, 

Loaves. 

Other  Nouns  in  /  form  their  Plurals  regularly. 

OBS.  6. — But  most  Nouns  ending  in  fe  are  changed  into  ves. 

EXAMPLES. 

Singular.— Knife,  Life,  Wife. 

Plural.— Knives,  Lives,  Wives. 

OBS.  6.— Many  Nouns  form  their  Plurals  irregularly. 

EXAMPLES. 

Singular.— Man,  Child,  Foot,  Ox,  Mouse. 

Plural.--  Men,  Children,          Feat,  Oxen,          Mice. 


80  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR — PART   II. 

OBS.  7. — In  most  Compound  Words,  the  basis  only  is  varied  to  form 
the  Plural,  if  its  Adjunct  Word  precedes,  or  its  Adjunct  Phrase  follows. 

EXAMPLES. 

Singular. — Fellow-servant,   Ink-stand,    Race-horse,   Camp  meeting, 
Plural. — Fellow-servants,  Ink-stands,  Race-horses,  Camp-inee tings. 

Singular. — Father-in-law,  Aid-de-camp, 

Plural. — Fathers-in-law,  Aides-de-camp. 

OBS.  8. — But,  if  the  Adjunct  Word  follows  the  basis,  the  Plural  termina- 
tion is  commonly  attached  to  the  Adjunct. 

EXAMPLES. 

Singular. — Arm-full,  Camera-obscura,  Ignis- fatuus, 

Plural. — Arm-fulls,  Camera-obscuras,  Ignis-fatuuses. 

OBS.  9. — In  formin'g  the  Plural  of  Nouns  having  titles  prefixed  or 
annexed,  custom  is  not  uniform. 

There  seems  to  be  a  propriety  in  regarding  a  name  and  its  title  as  a 
Compound  Noun  ;  as,  Jonathan  Edwards,  John  Smith,  Miss  Bowen. 

If,  then,  it  is  decided  which  part  of  the  Compound  Word — the  Name 
or  the  Title — is  to  be  regarded  as  the  Basis,  and  which  the  Adjunct,  the 
Plural  termination  should  be  attached  as  directed  in  Obs.  7  and  8, 
above.  Thus,  Miss  Bowen  and  her  sister,  two  ladies  unmarried,  are 
Misses.  "  I  called  to  see  the  Misses  Bowen." 

' '  We  purchase  goods  of  the  Messrs.  Barber. ' '  Here  the  titles  consti- 
tute the  leases — the  names,  the  Adjuncts. 

Again  :  Patterson  the  father  and  Patterson  the  son  are  two  Patter- 
sons. They  are  both  doctors.  If  we  speak  of  them  as  men,  we  make 
the  Name  the  Basis  and  the  Title  as  Adjunct ;  thus,  "I  visited  the  two 
Doctor  Pattersons."  But  if  we  speak  of  them  as  Doctors,  we  make  the 
Title  the  Basis,  and  pluralize  it ;  thus,  "  We  employed  Doctors  J.  &  A. 
Patterson." 

OBS.  10. — Some  Nouns  have  no  Plurals. 

EXAMPLES. — Wheat — silver — gold — iron — gratitude. 

OBS.  11. — Some  Nouns  have  no  Singular. 

EXAMPLES.  — Tongs — embers — vespers — literati — scissors. 

OBS.  12. — Some  Nouns  have  the  same  Form  in  both  Numbers. 

EXAMPLES. 

Singular. — Apparatus,         News,         Wages,          Sheep,          Vermin, 
Plural. — Apparatus,         News,         Wages,         Sheep,          Vermin. 


NOUNS NUMBER.  81 

OBS.  13. — Some  Nouns,  having  a  Singular  form,  are  used  in  a  Plural 
sense. 

EXAMPLES.  —  Horse  —  foot  —  cavalry — cannon— sail.  One  thousand 
horse  and  two  thousand  foot — five  hundred  cavalry — fifty  cannon — twenty 
sail  of  the  line — and,  for  supplies,  five  hundred  head  of  cattle. 

OBS.  14. — Some  Nouns,  having  no  Plural  form- to  indicate  Number, 
receive  a  Plural  termination  to  indicate  different  species. 

EXAMPLES. — Wines. — "  Most  wines  contain  over  twenty  per  cent,  of 
alcohol."  Tea. — 4i  The  teas  of  the  Nankin  Company  are  all  good." 

OBS.  15. — Many  Latin,  Greek,  and  Hebrew  Nouns  used  in  English 
composition,  retain  their  original  Plurals.  Commonly  the  terminations 
ww,  us,  and  on,  of  the  Singular,  are  changed  into  a,  for  the  Plural ;  x 
into  ces,  and  is  into  es. 

EXAMPLES. 

Singular. — Datum,  Genus,  Criterion,  Index,          Axis, 

Plural. — Data,  Genera,         Criteria,  Indices,        Axes. 


EXERCISES    IN    GENDER,    PERSON,    AND    NUMBER. 

Let  the  Class  give,  1st,  the  Gender— 2d,  the  Person— 3d,  the 
Number  of  each  of  the  following  Names — always  giving  a  reason  for 
the  modification,  by  repeating  the  Definitions. 

William,  Boy,  Town,  Army, 

Ganges,  Girl,  County,  Data, 

Andes,  Aunt,  -  Troy,  Index, 

Cuba,  Cousin,  '         City,  Question. 

^&&~  Let  Sentences  be  made,  in  which  the  following  Words  shall  be 
in  the  Second  Person. 

MODEL. 

"  Father,  thy  hand  hath  reared  this  venerable  column." 
Father,  Stars,  Thou  Heralds, 

Mother,  Hills,  You,  Messengers, 

Sun,  Pavers,  Ye,  Walls, 

Earth,  Woods,  Men,  Floods. 

7££S**  Let  other  Sentences  be  made,  having  the  same  Words  in  the 
Third  Person,  after  the  following 

MODEL. 

"  My  Father  made  them  all." 


82  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR PART   II. 

^^*  Let  the  following  Singular  Nouns  be  changed  to  their  Plurals, 
and  placed  in  Sentences, — always  giving  the  Rule  for  the  change  of 
Number. 


Boy, 

Motto, 

Fox, 

Ox, 

Son-in-law, 

Father, 

Hero, 

Staff, 

Pea, 

Spoon  -full, 

Man, 

Knife, 

Goose, 

Basis, 

Cousin-german, 

Child, 

Hoof,' 

Mouse, 

Stratum, 

Knight-errant. 

MODEL. 

"  The  boys  have  accomplished  their  tasks." 

^^  Let  the  Gender  and  Number  of  the  following  Nouns  be  changed 
and  placed  in  Sentences. 

Man,  Bachelor,  Brother,  Poetess, 

Boys,  Lioness,  Sons,  Prince, 

Uncles,  Geese,  Sister,  Tutor, 

Council,  Cow,  Maid,  Widower. 


"  Two  women  shall  be  grinding  at  the  mill." 

"  And  the  widows  of  Asher  are  loud  in  their  wail.' 


CASE. 
HEM.  1. — A  Noun  or  a  Pronoun  is  used — 

1.  As  the  Subject  of  a  Sentence. 

2.  As  a  Definitive  of  some  other  Noun. 

3.  As  the  Object  of  an  action  or  relation,  or 

4.  Independent  of  other  Words  in  the  Sentence. 

REM.  2. — These  different  conditions  of  Nouns,  suggest  their  modifica- 
tions in  regard  to  Case  ;  for  Case,  in  Grammar,  means  condition.  Hence, 

Nouns  are  distinguished  as  being  in  the 

Nominative  Case,  Objective  Case, 

Possessive  Case,  Independent  Case. 

OBS.— In  the  Latin,  Greek,  German,  and  many  other  languages,  the 
Cases  of  Nouns  are  determined  by  their  terminations.  But,  as  English 
Nouns  have  no  inflections,  except  to  form  Adjuncts,  the  Cases  are  determ- 
ined only  by  the  offices  of  Nouns  in  Sentences."  Hence, 


NOUNS — CASES.  83 

DEF.  77. — A  Noun  or  a  Pronoun  which  is  the  subject  of 
a  Sentence,  is  i«  the  Nominative  Case. 

EXAMPLES. — Animals  run. — John  saws  wood. — Resources  are  developed 
"  The  king  of  shadows  loves  a  shining  mark." 

OBS.  1. — The  Subject  of  a  Sentence  may  be  a  Noun,  a  Pronoun,  a 
Phrase,  or  a  Sentence. 

.  EXAMPLES. 

1.  A  Nmtn. —  Virtue  secures  happiness. 

2.  A  Pronoun. — "  He  plants  his  footsteps  in  the  sea." 

3.  A  Phrase. — "  To  be  able  to  read  well,  is  a  valuable  accomplishment." 

4.  A  Sentence. — "  That  good  men  sornetimes  commit  faults,  can  not  be 

denied." 

DEF.  78. — A  Noun  or  a  Pronoun  varied  in  its  orthogra- 
phy, so  that  it  may  indicate  a  relation  of  possession,  is  in 
the  Possessive  Case. 

OBS.  1. — The  Possessive  is  formed  by  adding  an  apostrophe  and  *  to 
the  Nominative. 

EXAMPLES. 

Nominative.— Man,  Boy,  World,  George. 

Possessive. — Man's,  Boy's,  World's,  George's. 

"  Then  shall  man's  pride  and  dullness  comprehend 
His  action's,  passion's,  being's,  use  and  end." — Pope. 

OBS.  2. — In  a  few  Words,  ending  in  the  Singular,  with  the  sound  of 
*  or  of  c  soft,  the  additional  s  is  omitted  for  euphony. 

EXAMPLES. — "  For  conscience'  sake." 

"  Festus  came  into  Felix'  room." 

OBS.  3. — Most  Plural  Nouns  ending  in  *,  add  the  apostrophe  only. 

• 

EXAMPLES. 

Nominative. — Horses,  Eagles,  Foxes. 

Possessive. — Horses',  Eagles',  Foxes' 

1  *  Heroes'  and  heroines'  shouts  confusedly  rise. ' ' 

OBS.  4. — The  term  Possessive  Case  is  applied  to  Nouns  and  Pronouns, 
to  indicate  a  peculiar  variation  of  Words  in  respect  of  form  ;  and,  be- 
cause this  form  commonly  indicates  a  relation  of  possession,  it  is  termed 
Possessive  Case.  But, 


84:  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR PART   II. 

OBS.  5. — Nouns  and  Pronouns  in  the  Possessive  Case  do  not  always 
indicate  "  possession  or  ownership." 

Children's  shoes. — Here  the  wbrd  "  children's"  does  not  imply  owner- 
ship. It  simply  specifies  "  shoes"  as  to  size. 

Small  shoes — Here  "small"  specifies  "  shoes"  in  a  similar  manner. 
"Small"  and  "children's"  performing  similar  offices,  are  similar  in 
their  etymology.  "Small"  is  an  Adjective — "Children's"  is  an  Ad- 
jective. 

OBS.  6. — A  System  of  Grammar,  having  its  foundation  in  the  doctrine' 
that  Words  and  other  Elements  of  Sentences  are  to  be  classified  accord- 
ing to  their  offices — and  that  is  the  proper  criterion — must  class  Possessive 
Nouns  and  Pronouns  as  Adjectives. 

Note  the  Exceptions  to  this  Proposition,  Obs.  9,  below. 

OBS.  7. — "Words  commonly  used  as  Nouns  and  Pronouns  become 
Adjectives  whenever  their  principal  office  is  to  limit  or  describe  beings  or  things  ; 
and  they  may  have  the  form  of  the  Nominative,  of  the  Possessive,  or  of 
the  Objective  Case. 

EXAMPLES. 

Nominative  Form. — A  gold  pen — a  he  goat. 

Possessive  Form. —  Wisdoms  ways — thine  enemy — my  self. 

Objective  Form. — A  gold  pen — silver  steel — them  selves. 

OBS.  8. — "When  such  "Words  are  not  used  as  Adjuncts,  they  are  Sub- 
stantives, and  are  found  to  be  in  some  cases  other  than  the  Possessive, 
although  they  retain  the  Possessive  form.  [See  Obs.  and  Examples 
below,  p.  86. 

DEF.  79. — A  Noun  or  a  Pronoun  which  is  the  Object  of 
a  Sentence  or  of  a  Phrase,  is  in  the  Objective  Case. 

EXAMPLES. 

1.  John  saws  wood. 

2.  Science  promotes  happiness. 

3.  "  The  king  of  shadows  loves  a  shining  mark.'' 

4.  "In  the  beginning  God  created  the  heaven  and  the  earth." 

5.  "  Scaling  yonder  peak,  I  saw  an  eagle  wheeling  near  its  brow." 

DEF.  80. — A  Noun  or  a  Pronoun  not  dependent  on  any 
other  "Word  in  construction,  is  in  the  Independent  Case. 

OBS.  1. — The  Independent  Case  includes  nouns  used  as  the  names  ot 

persons  addressed. 
EXAMPLES. — 0  Liberty  ! — "  Friends,  "Romans,  countrymen." 


NOUNS CASES.  85 

OBS.  2. — Names  used  to  specify  or  define  other  names  previously 

mentioned,  are  in  the  Independent  Case. 
EXAMPLES. — 1.  Paul,  the  Apostle,  wrote  to  Timothy. 
Here,  "  Paul"  is  the  subject  of  "wrote  ;"  hence  in  the  Nominative 
Case  (see  Def.  78).     "Apostle"  designates  which  "  Paul"  is  intended  ; 
hence  in  the  Independent  Case. 

2.  Webster,  the  Statesman,  has  been  mistaken  by  some  foreign  authors 
for  Webster,  the  Lexicographer. 

Here,  the  Words  "  Statesman*  and  "Lexicographer"  are  used  to  limit, 
define,  and  descrile  the  two  "  Websters."  Hence, 

REM. — Words  thus  used  are  to  be  regarded  as  Logical  Adjuncts.  (See 
Parti.,  p.  28,  Obs.  3.) 

OBS.  3. — Nouns  used  to  introduce  Independent  Phrases,  are  in  the  In- 
dependent Case. 

EXAMPLE. — The  hour  having  arrived,  we  commenced  the  exercises. 
OBS.  4. — Nouns  and  Pronouns  used  in  predication  with  Verbs. 
EXAMPLES. — "  God  is  love," — "  It  is  /." — "The  wages  of  sin  is  death." 
REM. — The  term  PREDICATE  CASE  is,  by  some  grammarians,  applied  to 
Nouns  and  Pronouns  in  Predicate. 

OBS.  5. — Nouns  and  Pronouns  used  for  euphony,  titles  of  books,  cards, 

signs,  are  in  the  Independent  Case. 
EXAMPLES. — 1.   "The  moon  herself  is  lost  in  heaven." 

2.   "  Webster's  Dictionary." — 3.   "  J.  Barber,  Son,  Sf  Company." 
OBS.  6. — In  the  English  language,  Nouns  are  not  varied  in  form  to 
distinguish  the  Cases,  except  for  the  Possessive.     The  Case  is  always 
determined  by  its  office. 

(1.)  If  it  is  the  Subject  of  a  Sentence,  it  is,  therefore,  in  the  Nomi- 
native Case. 
(2.)  If  it  is  the  Object  of  a  Sentence  or  the  Object  of  a  Phrase,  it 

is,  therefore,  in  the  Objective  Case. 

(3  )  If  it  performs  neither  of  these  offices,  and  has  not  a  Posses- 
/sive  form,  it  is  not  joined  to  any  word  going  before  in 
construction,  and  is,  therefore,  in  the  Independent  Care. 
4.)  If  it  has  a  Possessive  form,  or  any  other  form,  and  limits  or 
describes  a  being  or  a  thing,  it  performs  the  office  of  an 
Adjunct,  and  is,  therefore,  an  Adjective. 

OBS.  7. — Nouns  and  Pronouns  in  the  Nominative  or  in  the  Objective  Case 
are  used  Substantively.  In  the  Independent  Case  they  are  used  Su'tstan- 
tively,  or  as  Logical  Adjuncts.  (See  Obs.  2,  above.)  In  the  Possessive  Case 
they  are  commonly  used  as  Grammatical  Adjuncts. 

8 


86  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR— PART  II. 

OBS.  8. — EXCEPTION. — Nouns  and  Pronouns  of  the  Possessive  form,  are 
sometimes  used  Substantively ;  but,  when  thus  used,  they  are  in  the 
Nominative,  in  the  Objective,  or  in  the  Independent  Case. 

EXAMPLE?,, 

(a.)  Nominative. — My  book  is  new  ;  John's  is  old. 

Mine  is  little  used  ;  yours  is  soiled. 

"  Mine"  :s  the  Subject  of  the  Sentence  ;  hence  in  the  Nominative  Case. 

(6.)  Objective. — John  is  a  friend  of  mine. 

"  Mine"  is  the  Object  of  the  Preposition  "  o/"f;  hence  in  the  Objective 
Case. 

NOTE. — It  is  a  mistaken  notion  of  certain  grammarians,  that  "mine," 
in  the  above  example,  is  equivalent  to  "  my  friend,"  and  must  there- 
fore be  "  in  the  Possessive  Case,  and  governed  by  friend  understood." 

John  is  a  friend  of  mine;  i.  e.,  he  is  friendly  to  me. 

Fred  is  my  enemy  ;  but  he  is  a  friend  of  "  my  friend.1* 

Is  "  mine"  equivalent •  to  "  my  friend"  ?  How  the  notion  vanishes 
before  the  test ! 

(c.)  Independent.— The  book  is  mine;  it  was  yours. 
''Mine"  is  used  in  Predicate  with  "is"  ;  hence  in  the  Independent  or 
Predicate  Case. 


QUESTIONS   FOR   REVIEW* 

PAOK 

69.  What  are  the  principal  subjects  discussed  in  Part  I.  ?.  .See  Rem.  1. 

"What  is  Proximate  Analysis  of  Sentences  ? See  Rem.  2. 

What  is  Ultimate  Analysis  ? See  Rem.  2. 

What  is  the  province  of  Part  II.  ? , See  Rem.  3. 

The  Science  of  Language  embraces  what  divisions  ? 

70.  In  how  many  ways  are  Words  distinguished? 

By  their  forms,  how  are  Words  distinguished  ?  - 

What  is  a  Radical  Word  9 See  Def.  52. 

What  is  a  Derivative  Word? See  Def.  53. 

What  is  a  Simple  Word? See  Def.  54. 

What  is  a  Compound  Word? .See  Def.  55. 

71.  The  Elements  of  a  Compound  Word  are  called  what  ? 

What  is  the  Basis  of  a  Compound  Word  ? See  Def.  56. 

What  is  an  Adjunct  of  a  Compound  Word  ? See  Def.  57. 

What  is  a  Prefix  9— What  is  a  Suffix  ? See  Def.  58-59. 

72.  What  is  a  Separable  Radical  ? See  Def.  60. 

What  is  an  Inseparable  Radical  ? See  Def.  61. 


QUESTIONS    FOR    REVIEW.  87 

PAQK 

73.  By  their  uses,  how  are  Words  distinguished  ? 

What  is  a  Noun  ? See  Def.  G2. 

What  are  their  Classes  ? 

What  is  a  Proper  Noun  ?    Give  Examples See  Def.  63. 

74.  What  is  a  Common  Noun?    Give  Examples See  Def.  64. 

What  is  an  Abstract  Noun  ?    Give  Examples See  Def.  65. 

What  is  a  Collective  Noun  ?    Give  Examples See  Def.  66. 

What  is  a  Verbal  Noun  ?    Give  Examples See  Def.  67. 

What  are  the  several  offices  of  Nouns  ? See  Obs.  3. 

75.  What  other  Words  perform  Substantive  offices  ? 

Give  Examples . .  .See  Obs.  6. 

76 .  How  are  Nouns  modified  ? 

What  Nouns  and  Pronouns  are  of  the  Masculine  lender  ?.See  Def.  69. 
What  of  the  Feminine  Gender  ?—  of  the  Neuter  Gender  ?. .  See  Def.  70-1. 
Are  all  Nouns  modified  by  Gender  ?  . . . See  Obs.  1-4. 

77.  How  are  the  distinctions  of  Gender  indicated  ? 

78.  What  occasions  the  modifications  of  Person  ? See  Rem. 

What  Nouns  and  Pronouns  are  of  the  First  Person  ?  . . .  See  Def.  72. 

What  of  the  Secoud  Person  ?    Give  Examples See  Def.  73. 

What  of  the  Third  Person  ?    Give  Examples See  Def.  74. 

What  are  the  Modifications  of  Number  9 

What  Nouns  are  of  the  Singular  Number  ?    Give  Exs . . .  See  Def.  75. 

What  Nouns  are  of  the  Plural  Number  ?    Give  Exs See  Def.  76. 

How  are  Numbers  indicated? See  Obs.  1. 

79.  What' Nouns  add  es  to  form  the  Plural ? . . .See  Obs.  2. 

80.  How  are  the  Plurals  of  Compound  Nouns  formed?.  .See  Obs.  7,  8,  9. 

81.  What  is  said  of  the  Plural  forms  of  Foreign  Nouns? See  Obs.  15. 

Eepeat  the  Exercises  in  Gender,  Person,  and  Number, 

after  the  Models  given. 

82.  What  does  the  term  Case  indicate  ? See  Rem.  2. 

IIow  many  Cases  in  English  Grammar  ? 

83.  When  is  a  Noun  or  a  Pronoun  in  the  Nominative  Case?.. See  Def.  77. 
When  is  a  Noun  or  a  Pronoun  in  the  Possessive  Case? . .  .See  Def.  78. 
How  is  the  Possessive  Case  formed  ? See  Obs.  1,  2,  3. 

84.  The  term  Possessive  Case  indicates  what  ? See  Obs.  4,  5. 

What  office,  is  commonly  performed  by  the  Possessive 

form  of  Words  ? See  Obs.  6.  \ 

When  do  Words,  commonly  used  as  Nouns  and  Pro- 
nouns, become  Adjuncts  ? See  Obs.  7. 

When  is  a  Noun  or  a  Pronoun  in  the  Objective  Case  ?  .  . .  See  Def.  79. 
When  is  a  Noun  or  a  Pronoun  in  the  Independent 

Case?..  ..See  Def.  79. 


88  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR PART   II. 

PAOE 

85.  What  is  said  of  the  variations  of  Nouns  to  denote 

Cases? See  Obs.  7. 

86.  When  are  Nouns  of  the  Possessive  form  used  Substan- 

tively? . .  .See  Obs.  9. 


PRONOUNS. 

HEM. — To  avoid  an  unpleasant  repetition  of  the  same  Word  in  a  Sen- 
tence, a  class  of  Words  is  introduced  as  Substitutes  for  Names.  Hence, 

DEF.  81. — A  Pronoun  is  a  Word  used  instead  of  a 
Noun. 

OBS.  1. — As  Pronouns  are  of  general  application,  the  Noun  for  which 
any  given  Pronoun  is  substituted,  is  commonly  determined  by  the  con- 
text— and,  because  it  generally-  precedes  the  Pronoun,  it  is  called  its 

Antecedent. 

OBS.  2. — The  Antecedent  of  a  Pronoun  may  be  a  Word,  a  Phrase,  or 
Sentence. 

EXAMPLES. 

1.  A  Word. — "  James  has  injured  HIMSELF  ;  HE  has  studied  too  much." 

2.  A  Phrase. — "  William  s  abandoning  a  good  situation  in  hopes  of  a  bet- 
ter, was  never  approved  by  me.     IT  has  been  the  prime  cause  of  all 
his  troubles  ' ' 

3.  A  Sentence. — "  I  am  glad  that  Charles  has  secured  a  liberal  education.     IT 
is  what  few  poor  boys  have  the  perseverance  to  accomplish." 

CLASSIFICATION    OF    PRONOUNS. 

Ft  EM. — Some  Pronouns,  by  their  forms,  denote  their  modification  of 
Gender,  Person,  Number,  and  Case. 

Others  relate  directly  to  the  Nouns  for  which  they  are  used. 
Others,  in  addition  to  their  ordinary  office,  are  used  in  asking  questions. 
Others  describe  the  Names  for  which  they  are  substituted.     Hence, 


Pronouns  are  distinguished  as 
Personal^ 
Relative, 


Interrogative,  and 
Adjective. 


PERSONAL    PRONOUN. 

DEF.  82. — A  Personal  Pronoun  is   a  Pronoun  whose 
form  determines  its  Person  and  Number. 


PRONOUNS DECLENSION. 


89 


OBS. — The  Personal  Pronouns  are  Simple  or  Compound. 


Simple. — I, 
Compound. — My  self , 


thou, 
thyself, 


LIST.    . 
you, 
yourself, 


he, 

himself, 


she, 
herself, 


it. 

itself. 


MODIFICATION. 


REM. — Whenever  one  Word  is  used  in  the  place  of  another,  it  is 
properly  subjected  to  the  same  laws  as  the  other  ;  this  is  true  of  Pro- 
nouns. Hence, 

Pronouns  have  the  same  modifications  of  Gender,  Per- 
son, 1ST  umber,  and  Case,  as  Nouns. 

REM. — To  denote  these  several  modifications,  some  Pronouns  are 
varied  in  form.  This  variation  of  form  is  called  Declension. 


DECLENSION    OF    PRONOUNS. 

1.  SIMPLE  PERSONAL  PRONOUNS, 

FIRST   PERSON. 

Nominative. 

Possessive.          Objective. 

Independent. 

Singular.  —  I, 

my,                  me, 

I  or  me.* 

Plural.—  We, 

our,                 us, 

we  or  us 

SECOND  PERSON. 

Singular.  —  You  , 

your,               you, 

you. 

Plural.—  You, 

your,                you, 

you. 

SECOND  PERSON.—  Solemn  Style. 

Singular.  —  Thou  , 

thy,                 thee, 

thou  or  thee. 

Plural—  YQ, 

your,                you, 

ye  or  you. 

L^ 

THIRD  PERSON.  —  Masculine. 

,  Singular.  —  He, 

his,                  him, 

he  or  him. 

Plural—  They, 

their,               them, 

they  or  them. 

THIRD  PERSON.  —  Feminine. 

Singular.  —  Sh  e  , 

her,                  her, 

she  or  her. 

Plural—  They, 

their,               them, 

they  or  them. 

THIRD  PERSON.  —  Neuter. 

Singular.  —  It, 

its,                   it, 

it. 

Plural.—  They, 

their,               them, 

they  or  thcin. 

*  Pronouns  in  the  Independent  Case  commonlv  t-<ketho  form  of  lh'>  Nomin  itivc, 
ns,  "O  h  -ppy  they!"—"  Ah,  luckless  he!"— "  it  is  /.'"  But  they  snmi'titm-a  take 
the  form  of  the  Objective,  as,  "Him  excepted."— '*  I  louiid  it  to  be  /*«'/«.»'— 
"  Ah  me  /» 

8* 


90  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR — PART   H. 

OBS.  1. — From  the  above  Paradigm,  notice, 

1.  That  Pronouns  of  the  Third  Person  Singular  only  are  varied  to 

denote  the  sex. 

2.  That  the  Pronoun  you  is  not  varied  to  denote  the  Number. 

This  is  a  modern  innovation  ;  but  the  idiom  is  too  well 
established  to  yield  to  criticism  or  protest. 

3.  That  the  principal  variations  are  made  to  distinguish  the 

Cases. 

4 

4.  That,  to  distinguish  the  PERSONS,  different  words  are  employed. 

OBS.  2. — Mine,  thine,  his,  hers,  ours,  yours,  and  theirs,  are  commonly  used 
"to  specify  or  otherwise  describe  Nouns  and  Pronouns"  ;  and  when  thus 
used,  ihey  are  therefore  Adjectives.*  They  are  placed  here  to  denote 
their  origin,  and  to  accommodate  such  teachers  as,  by  force  of  habit,  are 
inclined  to  call  them  Pronouns  in  all  conditions.  (See  Possessive  Speci- 
fying Adjectives,  p.  99.) 

QBS.  3. — Mine,  thine,  his,  hers,  ours,  yours,  and  theirs,  are  sometimes 
used  Substantively,  i.  e.,  as  the  Subjects  or  the  Objects  of  Sentences — 
the  Objects  of  Phrases,  or  as  Independent  Substantives  ;  and  when  thus 
used,  they  are  therefore  Substantives.  (See  Adjective  Pronouns.) 

EXAMPLES. 

Subject  of  a  Sentence. — "  My  sword  and  yours  are  kin." — Shakspeare. 
Object  of  a  Sentence. — "  You  seek  your  interests  ;  we  follow  ours." 
Object  of  a  Phrase. — "  Therefore  leave  your  forest  of  beasts  for  ours  of 

brutes,  called  men." — Wesley  to  Pope. 
1 '  John  is  a  friend  of  mine. ' ' 
Independent. — "  Thine  is  the  kingdom." 

"Theirs  had  been  the  vigor  of  their  youth." 

OBS.  4. — The  Pronoun  it  is  often  used  indefinitely,  and  may  have  an 
Antecedent  of  the  First,  the  Second,  or  the  Third  Person,  of  the  Sin- 
gular or  of  the  Plural  number  ;  and  sometimes  it  has  no  antecedent. 
EXAMPLES. — ' '  It  is  1.  "         "  Was  it  thou  ?'  '—Is  it  you  ? 
It  was  John. — Was  it  the  boys  ? 
It  snows. — It  blows. — It  seems. 

OBS.  5. — That  for  which  a  Pronoun  is  used,  may  also  be  a  Phrase  or 
a  Sentence. 

EXAMPLES. 

A  Phrase. — 1 .   "  IT  is  good  to-  be  zealously  affected  in  a  good  thing.1 ' 
A  Sentence. — 2.   "  IT  remains  that  we  speak  of  its  moral  effects." 
*  See  Webster's  Grammar,  p.  46. 


RELATIVE  PRONOUNS.  91 

RELATIVE*  PRONOUNS. 

OEF.  83. — A  Relative  Pronoun  is  a  Pronoun  used  to 
introduce  a  Sentence  which  qualifies  its  own  antecedent. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  The  youth  who  was  speaking,  was  applauded. 

2.  We  saw  the  man  whom  you  described. 

3.  "  Mount  the  horse  which  1  have  chosen  for  thee." 

OBS.  1. — In  Example  1,  "  who"  relates  to  "yguth,"  and  introduces 
the  Auxiliary  Sentence  ("  who  was  speaking"),  whose  office  it  is  to  de- 
scribe "  youth." 

The  word  "  who"  not  only  introduces  the  Adjunct  Sentence,  but  is 
also  an  Element  in  that  Sentence — a  Principal  Element — the  Subject. 

In  Example  2,  "whom  you  described,"  is  an  Auxiliary  Sentence, 
used  to  describe  or  point  out  a  particular  "  man"  ;  "whom*  introduces 
that  Adjective  Sentence,  is  the  object  of  "described,"  and  relates  to 


The  Words  used  as  Relative  Pronouns  are,  who,  which,,  that,  and  what. 
OBS.  2. — The  Words  as  and  than  are  sometimes,  by  ellipsis,  used  as 
Relative  Pronouns. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.   "  Such  as  I  have,  give  I  unto  thee." 

2.   "  We  have  more  than  heart  could  wish." 

But,  generally,  on  supplying  the  ellipsis,  we  may  make  those  words 
supply  the  offices  of  Prepositions  or  of  Conjunctions.     Thus, 

1.  "I  give  unto  thee  such  [things]  as  [those  which]  I  have." 

2.  * '  We  have  more  [things]  than  [those  things  which]  heart  could 

wish." 

OBS.  3. —  Who  is  varied  in  Declension  to  indicate  the  Cases  only. 
Which,  that,  and  what,  are  not  declined.     But  the  word  ichose  is  also 
used  as  the  Possessive  of  which. 


Norn. 

Pos. 

Obj. 

Indep. 

Who, 

Whose,* 

Whom, 

Who  or  whom. 

Which, 

Whose, 

Which, 

Which. 

That, 

That, 

That. 

What, 

What, 

What. 

*  Whose  is  always  a  definitive,  attached  t»  Nouns,  and  may  relate  to  persons  or 
to  things ;  as,  "  Whose  I  am,  and  whom  I  serve."—"  Whose  body  Nature  is,  and 
God  the  soul." 


92  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR — PART   II. 

OBS.  4.  —  Who  is  applied  to  man,  or  to  beings  supposed  to  possess 
intelligence. 

EXAMPLES.—  He  who  studies  will  excel  those  who  do  not.  "  He  whom 
sea-severed  realms  obey." 

OBS.  5. — Which  and  ii-hat  are  applied  to  brute  animals  and  to  things. 
EXAMPLES. — The  books  which  I  lost. — The  pen  which  I  use,  is  good. 
— We  value  most  what  costs  us  most. 

OBS.  6. — That  is  applied  to  man  or  to  things. 
EXAMPLE. — "Them  that  honor  me,  I  will  honor." 

OES.  7. —  What,  when  used  as  a  Relative,  is  always  compound;  and 
is  equivalent  to  that  which,  or  the  things  which. 

The  two  Elements  of  this  Word  never  belong  to  the  same  Sentence  ; 
one  part  introduces  a  Sentence  which  qualifies  the  antecedent  part  of 
the  same  word. 

"  Our  proper  bliss  depends  on  what  we  blame."   . 

In  this  example,  "what"'  is' a  Compound  Relative,  equivalent  to  the 
two  words,  that  which.  That,  the  Antecedent  part,  is  the  object  of 
"on;"  "which,"  the  Relative  part,  is  the  object  of  "blame."  The 
Auxiliary  Sentence,  "we  blame  which,"  is  used  to  qualify  "that." 
[See  page  43,  last  Diagram.] 

OBS.  8. — The  Compounds,  whoever,  whosoever,  whichever,  whichsoever,  what- 
ever, and  whatsoever,  are  construed  similarly  to  what. 


INTERROGATIVE    PKONOTJNS. 

DEF.  84. — An  Interrogative  Pronoun  is  a  Pronoun  used 
to  ask  a  question. 

EXAMPLES. — "  Who  will  show  us  any  good  ? 
"  Which  do  you  prefer  ?" 
"  What  will  satisfy  him?" 

LIST. 

OBS.  1. — The  Interrogative  Pronouns  are, 

Who applied  to  man. 

[• applied  to  man  or  things. 

\\hat   ) 

EXAMPLES. — -1.    Who  was  John  the  Baptist  ? 

2.  Which  will  you  have  ? 

3.  What  can  compensate  for  loss  of  character  ? 


ADJECTIVE    PRONOUNS.  93 

Ous.  2. — A  Sentence  is  made  Interrogative, 

1.  By  a  transposition  of  the  Principal  Elements — the  Pred- 

icate being  placed  before  its  Subject. 

EXAMPLES. —  Will  yon  go  ? 

' '  Did  Claudius  waylay  Milo  ?' ' 

2.  By  the  use  of  an  Interrogative  Pronoun. 

EXAMPLES. — "  What  will  a  man  give  in  exchange  for  his  soul?' 
1 '  Who  will  show  us  any  good  ?' ' 

3.  By  the  use  of  Interrogative  Adjectives  or  Adverbs. 

EXAMPLES.— 1.    Which  book  is  yours  ? 

2.  "  What  evil  hath  he  done? 

3.  "  How  can  ye  escape?" 

4.  "  Where  shall  we  go  ?" 

5.  "  Why  will  ye  die.?" 

OBS.  3.— The  Antecedent — technically  so  called — of  an  Interrogative 
Pronoun,  is  the  Word  which  answers  the  question. 

EXAMPLES. —  Who  gave  the  valedictory  ?     Wheeler. 
Whom  shall  we  obey  ?    OUT  parents. 

OBS.  4. — A  Word  which  asks  a  question  is  to  be  construed  as  is  the 
Word  which  answers  it. 

EXAMPLES. —  Who  has  the  book  ?    John  [has  the  book]. 

Whose  book  is  it  ?     [It  is]   William's  [book]. 
"  William's"  describes  "book"  ;  hence  an  Adjunct  of  "book." 
Whose"  has  the  same  construction  ;  hence  an  Adjunct  of  "  book." 


ADJECTIVE   PRONOUNS. 

DEF.  85. — An  Adjective  Pronoun  is  a  Definitive  Word, 
used  to  supply  the  place  of  the  Word  which  it  limits. 

EXAMPLE. — "Some  [    ]  said  one  thing,  and  some,  another"  [    ]. 

OBS.  1. — In  this  Example,  "some"  defines  people  (understood),  and 
is,  therefore,  used  Adjecti  vuly.  It  is  substituted  for  the  Word  *  *  people, ' ' 
constituting  the  Subject  of  the  Sentence  ;  hence  it  is  used  Subslan- 
tively.  But  the  Substantive  being  the  principal  office,  the  Word  is 
properly  called  a  Pronoun.  Its  secondary  office  being  Adjective,  it  is 
properly  called  an  Adjective  Pronoun. 


94:  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR PART   II. 

OBS.  2. — An  Adjective  Pronoun  always  performs,  at  the  same  time, 
two  distinct  offices — an  Adjective  office  and  a  Substantive  office  ;  and  it  may 
have,  at  the  same  time,  an  Adjective  and  an  Adverbial  Adjunct. 
EXAMPLE. — "  The  prof essedly  good  are  not  always  really  so." 
"  Good"  describes  people  (understood),  thus  performing  an  Adject- 
ive office. 

"  Good"  Is  the  Subject  of  the  Sentence  ;  hence  a  Substantive. 

As  a  Substantive,  "good"  is  limited  by  the  Adjective  "  the." 

As  an  Adjective,  fi  good"  is  modified  by  the  Adverb,  " professedly." 

OBS.  3. — Words  thus  used  are,  by  some  grammarians,  called  "  Pro- 
nominal Adjectives."  We  prefer  the  term,  "Adjective  Pronoun," 
because  the  Principal  office  is  Substantive — the  Adjective  office  being  sec- 
ondary in  the  structure  of  Sentences  and  of  Phrases. 

OBS.  4. — The  following  Words  arjs  often  thus  used  : 

All,  Former,  Neither,  Such, 

Both,  Last,  Nonel  That, 

Each,  Latter,  One,  These, 

Either,  Least,  Other,  Those, 

Few,  Less,  .  Several,  This. 

Most  specifying,  and  all  qualifying  Adjectives  may  be  thus  used: 

EXAMPLES. — 1 .   *  *  The  good  alone  are  great. ' ' 

2.  "  The  poor  respect  the  rich." 

3.  "  One  step  from  the  sublime  to  the  ridiculous" 

OBS.  5. — Mine,  thine,  his,  hers,  ours,  yours,  and  theirs,  are  used — in  com- 
mon with  other  Definitives— Substantively,  i.  e.,  as  the  Representatives 
of  Nouns,  which  it  is  their  primary  office  to  specify.  They  are  then 
properly  called  Adjective  Pronouns. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  "He  is  a  friend  of  mine" 

2.  "  Thine  is  the  kingdom." 

3.  "  Theirs  had  been  the  vigor  of  his  youth/ 

PROMISCUOUS   EXAMPLES   OF   ADJECTIVE  PRONOUNS. 

1.  "  Brutus  and  Aruns  killed  each  other." 

2.  "  Thou  shalt  be  all  in  all,  and  I  in  thee." — Milton. 

3.  "  They  sat  down  in  ranks,  by  hundreds  and  by  fifties." 

4.  "  Teach  me  to  feel  another's  woe,  to  hide  the  fault  I  see  ; 

The  mercy  I  to  others  show,  that  mercy  show  to  me." — Pope. 

5.  "  Who  are  the  called,  according  to  his  purpose." 


NOUNS — PRONOUNS — RECAPITULATION. 


95 


RECAPITULATION. 


Radical    

j  Separable. 

Forms  • 

Derivative  .  . 

(  Inseparable. 

(  Prefix. 
-!  Root. 

WORDS  are  distinguished 
by  their  

and 

Simple. 
Compound.  .  . 

(Suffix. 

Uses  « 

'  Noun. 
Pronoun. 
Adjective. 
Verb. 

Adverb. 
Preposition. 
Conjunction. 
Exclamation. 

NOUNS  are . 


PRONOUNS  are  , 


Proper 


Common . . . . 


f  Concrete. 
J  Abstract. 
1  Collective. 
[  Verbal. 


Personal. 
Relative. 
Interrogative. 
Adjective. 


MODIFICATION   OF   NOUNS   AND   PRONOUNS. 


( Masculine. 

Gender J  Feminine. 

I  Neuter." 


NOUNS  and  PRONOUNS  are 
modified  by 


Person . 


Number 


Case. 


( First. 

,  J  Second. 

(Third. 

j  Singular. 
1  {  Plural. 

Nominative. 
Possessive. 
Objective. 
Independent. 


96  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR — PART   II. 


QUESTIONS    FOR    REVIEW. 

88.  What  is  a  Pronoun  ? See  Def.  81. 

Why  are  Pronouns  used  ? See  Hem. 

What  is  an  Antecedent  of  a  Pronoun  ? See  Obs.  1. 

Antecedents  may  consist  of  what  ? See  Obs.  2. 

Why  are  Pronouns  .classified  ? See  Rem. 

Sow  are  Pronouns  classified  ? 

^  hat  is  a  Personal  Pronoun  ? See  Def.  82. 

89.  How  are  Personal  Pronouns  distinguished  ? See  Obs. 

How  are  Pronouns  modified  ? 

Decline  the  Personal  Pronoun'. 

90.  What  Pronouns  are  varied  in  form,  to  denote  Gender  ?. .  See  Obs.  1. 

For  what  are  the  principal  variations  made  ? See  Obs.  1. 

How  do  we  distinguish  the  Persons  of  Pronouns? See  Obs.  1. 

Why  are  Possessive  Specifying  Adjectives  placed  with 

Pronouns  ? See  Obs.  2. 

When  are  mine,  thine,  his,  hers,  ours,  yours,  and  theirs  used 

as  Substantives  ?  and  why  ? See  Obs.  3. 

Make  Sentences  having  each  of  these  Words  as  Subjects 

— as  Objects — as  Objects  of  Phrases — in  Predicate 

with  a  Verb. 
What  may  be  some  of  the  different  Antecedents  of  it  ?.See  Obs.  4. 

91.  What  is  a  Relative  Pronoun  ? See  Def.  83. 

Give  the  LIST  of  Relative  Pronouns. 

What  is  said  of  the  words  as  and  than  ? See  Obs,  2. 

Which  of  the  Relative  Pronouns  are  varied  in  form  ?.  .See  Obs.  3. 

92.  What  are  the  peculiar  uses  of  who,  which,  and  that?  .See  Obs.  4,  5,  6. 
What  is  there  peculiar  in  the  use  of  the  Word  what  ?  .  .See  Obs.  7. 

What  other  Double  Relatives  have  we  ? See  Obs.  8. 

What  is  an  Interrogative  Pronoun  ? See  Def.  84. 

Give  the  LIST  of  Interrogative  Pronouns See  Obs.  1. 

93.  Sentences  are  made  Interrogative — hoiv  ? See  Obs.  2. 

What  is  the  Antecedent  of  an  Interrogative  Pronoun?  .  .See  Obs,  3. 
An  Interrogative  Pronoun  is  to  be  constructed — how  ?.  See  Obs.  5. 
What  is  an  Adjective  Pronoun  ? See  Def.  85. 

94.  What  diitind  offices  are  performed  by  Adjective  Pro- 

nouns ? See  Obs.  2. 

Why  is  the  term  Adjective  Pronoun  given  to  this  class 

of  Words  ? See  Obs.  3. 

Give  the  LIST  of  Words  most  frequently  used  as  Adjec- 
tive Pronouns See  Obs.  4. 


ADJECTIVES CLASSIFICATION.  97 


ADJECTIVES. 

REM. — As  things  possess  individuality,  and  have  points  of  difference 
from  each  other,  so  we  have  Words  which  point  out  and  describe  those 
things,  and  mark  their  differences  from  other  things.  Hence, 

DEF.  86. — An  Adjective  is  a  Word  used  to  qualify  or 
otherwise  describe  a  Noun  or  a  Pronoun. 

EXAMPLES.— Good — amiable — the — our — earnest — falling — young  — 
conscientious — correct — famous. 


A  good  boy. 

An  amiable  young  lady. 

Our  national  resources. 


Falling  leaves. 
Conscientious  Christian. 
Correct  expression. 


CLASSIFICATION. 
REM. — Adjectives  are  used — 

1.  To  express  a  quality — as,  good  boy — red  rose — sweet  apple. 

2.  To  specify  or  limit— as,  the  book — thy  pen — three  boys. 

3.  To   express,    incidentally,   a  condition,  state,  or  act — as,  loving 
friend — wheeling  orbs — injured  reputation.     Hence 

Adjectives  are  distinguished  as — 

Qualifying  Adjectives, 
Specifying  Adjectives ,  and 
Verbal  Adjectives. 


QUALIFYING  ADJECTIVES. 

DEF.  87.— A  Qualifying  Adjective  is  a  Word  used  to 
describe  &  Substantive  by  expressing  a  quality. 

EXAMPLES. — Good — sweet — cold — honorable — amiable — virtuous. 


An  honorable  man. 
An  amiable  disposition. 
A  virtuous  woman. 


Some  good  fruit. 
Three  sweet  oranges. 
Much  cold  water. 


98  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR — PART  II. 


SPECIFYING   ADJECTIVES. 


DEF.  88. — A  Specifying  Adjective  is  a  Word  used  to 
define  or  limit  the  application  of  a  Substantive  without 
denoting  a  quality. 

EXAMPLES. — A — an — the— this — that — some — three — my. 


A  man  of  letters,  j 
An  educated  man. 
The  question  at  issue. 
This  road. 


That  mountain  in  the  distance. 
Some  good  fruit. 
Three  sweet  oranges. 
My  enemy. 


OBS.  1. — Adjectives  derived  from  Proper  Nouns  are  called  Proper 


EXAMPLES.— Arabian— Grecian — Turkish — French. 

OBS.  2. —  Which,  ichat,  and  sometimes  whose,  when  used  as  Adjectives, 
are  called  Interrogative  Adjectives  when  they  indicate  a  question. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.    Which  side  will  you  take? 

2.  What  evil  hath  he  done  ? 

3.  Whose  hook  is  that  ? 

REM. — Adjectives  may  specify- 

1.  By  simply  pointing  out  things — by  limiting  or  designating. 

2.  By  denoting  relation  of  ownership,  adaptation,  or  origin. 

3.  By  denoting  number,  definite  or  indefinite.     Hence, 

Specifying  Adjectives  are  distinguished  as — 

Pure  Adjectives, 
Numeral  Adjectives,  and 
Possessive  Adjectives. 

DEF.  89. — A  Pure  Adjective  is  a  Word  used  only  to 
point  out  or  designate  things. 

EXAMPLES. — The — that — those — such — next — same — other. 


Thou  art  the  man. 
That  question  is  settled. 
Those  books  are  received. 


The  next  class. 
The  same  lesson. 
Other  cares  intrude. 


1  Such  shames  are  common."  I        Any  man  may  learn  wisdom. 


ADJECTIVES NUMERAL.  99 

DBF.  90. — A  Possessive  Adjective  is  a  Word  that  de- 
scribes a  being  or  thing  by  indicating  a  relation  of  owner- 
ship, origin,  fitness,  etc. 

EXAMPLES.  —  My  —  our  —  their  —  whose  —  children's  —  John's  — 
Teacher's. 

My  father — my  neighbor.  Children's  shoes. 

Our  enemies.  Johns  horse. 

Their  losses  are  severe.  Teacher  s  absence. 

2.  "  0  my  of  fense  is  rank  ;  it  smells  to  heaven  ; 

3.  It  hath  the  primal,  eldest  curse  upon  it, 
A  brother's  murder." 

4.  "He  heard  the  kings  c  o  m'm  and,  and  saw  that  ivritings  truth." 

NOTE. — A  Possessive  Adjective  is  generally  derived  from  a  Substan- 
tive, by  changing  the  Nominative  into  the  Possessive  form. 
Thus  :  "  He  heard  the  kings  command,"  is  equivalent  to, 
He  heard  the  command  of  the  king. 

DEF.  91. — A  Numeral  Adjective  is  a  Word  used  to  do- 
note  Number. 

EXAMPLES. — One — ten — first — second — fourfold — few — many 
OBS.  1. — Numeral  Adjectives  may  be, 

Cardinal. — One — two — three — four. 

Ordinal. — First — second — third — fourth. 

Multiplicative. — Single — double-— quadruple. 

Indefinite. — Few — many— some  (denoting  number). 

OBS.  2. — A  and  an,  when  they  Denote  number,  are  to  be  classed  as 
Numeral  Adjectives. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  "  Not  a  drum  was  heard,  nor  a  funeral  note." 

Not  one  drum  was  heard. 
2.   "  Not  an  instance  is  on  record." 
Not  one  instance  is  on  record. 


VEEBAL   ADJECTIVES. 

DEF.  92. — A  Verbal  Adjective  is  a  Word  used  to  de- 
scribe a  Noun  or  a  Pronoun,  by  expressing,  incidentally,  a 
condition,  state,  or  act. 


100  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR — PART  II. 

OBS. — This  class  of  Adjectives  consists  of  Participles,  used  primarily 
to  describe  Nouns  and  Pronouns. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  A  running  brook. 

2.  A  standing  pond. 

3.  I  saw  a  boy  running  to  school. 

4.  Another  standing  by  the  way. 

5.  "  Scaling  yonder  peak, 

I  saw  an  eagle  wheeling  near  its  brow. ' ' 

In  this  example  the  Sentence  is,  "  I  saw  eagle:"  arid  "  scaling  yonder 
peak,"  is  a  Phrase  used  to  describe  *'  I."  "Wheeling  near  its  brow,'' 
describes  ' '  eagle. ' '  Scaling  and  wheeling  are  Participles  used  to  describe 
a  Noun  and.  a  Pronoun— hence  they  are,  in  their  office,  Adjectives, 
(See  Def.  86.)  They  describe  by  expressing  (not  in  the  character  of 
Predicates,  but),  tf  incidentally,  a  condition,  state,  or  act,"  of  "I"  and 
"  eagle" — hence  they  are  Verbal  Adjectives. 

HEM.  1. — To  render  the  classification  more  simple,  I  have  preferred 
to  class  all  Participles  used  chiefly  to  describe  Nouns  and  Pronouns,  as 
Adjectives — and,  because  they  are  derived  from  Verbs,  and  retain  more 
or  less  of  the  properties  of  the  Verbs  from  which  they  are  derived,  I 
use  the  term  Verbal  Adjectives. 

But  Teachers  who  are  unwilling  to  do  more  than  simply  to  call 
them  Participles,  will  not  find  it  difficult  to  adapt  their  views  to  the 
plan  of  this  work  ;  the  Pupil  being  taught  that — 

"  Participles,  like  Adjectives,  belong  to  Nouns  and  Pronouns." 

And,  in  the  use  of  Diagrams— 

"  Participles  used  to  limit  Substantives,  occupy  the  same  position  as 

Adjective^. ' ' 

HEM.  2. — Participles  used  as  Adjectives,  commonly  retain  their  verbal 
character,  and,  like  their  Verbs,  may  have  Objects  after  them.  Hence, 

Verbal  Adjectives  are  distinguished  as  Transitive  and 
Intransitive. 

EXAMPLES. 

Intransitive. — 1.  "  He  possessed  a  well-balanced  mind." 

2.  "  Truth,  crushed  to  earth,  will  rise  again." 

Transitive. — 3.  "  Scaling  yonder  peak,  I  saw  an  eagle." 

4.  "  We  saw  the  children  picking  berries.'* 


ADJECTIVES — MODIFICATION.  101 


MODIFICATION    OF   ADJECTIVES., 

HEM.— Most  Qualifying  Adjectives, express,  by  variation*!  in  form,  dif- 
ferent degrees  of  quality.     Hence, 

Some  Adjectives  are  varied  in  form  to  denote 
Comparison. 

There  may  be  four  degrees  of  Comparison. 

1 .  Diminutive bluish. saltish. 

2.  Positive bli*e salt. 

3.  Comparative bluer salter. 

4.  Superlative bluest saltest. 

DEF.  93. — The  Diminutive  Degree  denotes  an  amount 
of  the  quality  less  than  the  Positive. 

It  is  commonly  formed  by  adding  ish  to  the  form  of  the  Positive. 
EXAMPLES. — Bluez'sA, — saltM.  ^ 

DEF.  94. — The  Positive  Degree  expresses  quality  in  its 
simplest  form,  without  a  comparison. 

EXAMPLES.  — Large — pure — rich — good — glimmering.  ^ 

DEF.   95. — The    Comparative  Degree  expresses  an  in- 
crease or  a  decrease  of  the  Positive. 

It  is  commonly  formed  by  adding  er,  Or  the  Words  more  or  less,  to  the 
form  of  the  Positive. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  Larger — purer — richer — more  common — less  objection- 
able. 
2.  *'  Richer  by  far  is  the  heart's  adoration." 

DEF.  96. — The  Superlative  Degree  expresses  the  greatest 
increase  or  decrease  of  the  quality  of  the  Adjective. 

It  is  commonly  formed  by  adding  cst,  or  the  Words  most  or  least,  to 
the  form  of  the  Positive. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  Largest — purest — most   ungrateful  —  smallest  —  upper- 
most 

2.  "  The  purest  treasure  mortal  times  afford 
Is— spotless  reputation . ' ' 
9* 


102  ENGLISH   GKAMMAB PART   II. 

OBS.  L— By  tl^e  use  of  other  Words,  the  degrees  of  Comparison  may 
be  rendered  indefinitely  numerous. 

"  EXAMPLES. — Cautious-  -  soi.iew/iat  cautious — very  cautious  —  unusually 
cautious — remarkably  cautious — exceedingly  cautious — too  little  cautious — 
wracautious— quite  wwcautious. 

OBS.  2.— Comparison  descending,  is  expressed  by  prefixing  the  "Words 
less  and  least  to  the  Adjective. 

EXAMPLES. — Wise,  less  wise,  least  wise — ambitious,  less  ambitious,  least 
ambitious. 

OBS.  3. — Most  Adjectives  of  two  or  more  syllables  are  compared  by 
prefixing  the  words  more  and  most,  or  less  and  least,  to  the  Positive. 

EXAMPLES. 

Positive.  Comparative.  Superlative. 

Careful more  careful most  careful. 

Careful less  careful least  careful. 

OBS.  4. — Some  Adjectives  may  be  compared  by  either  method  speci- 
fied above. 

I  EXAMPLES. 

Positive.  Comparative.  Superlative. 

Kemote remoter remote^. 

Remote  . .  . .  more  remote most  remote. 


IRREGULAR   COMPARISON. 

Some  Adjectives  are  irregular  in  comparison. 

EXAMPLES. 

Positive.  Comparative.  Superlative. 

Good better best. 

Bad worse worst. 

Little less least. 

Many more most. 

Much more most. 

p  (  farther farthest. 

' '  (  further furthermost. 

QJ,  (  older oldest. 

' '  c  elder eldest. 


ADJECTIVES — IRREGULAR   COMPARISON.  103 

OBS  5  —Some  Adjectives  want  the  Positive. 

EXAMPLES.-  1.  After,  aftermost — nether,  nethermost. 
2.   "  He  was  in  the  after  part  of  the  ship." 

OBS.  6.— Some  Adjectives  want  the  Comparative. 
EXAMPLES. — 1.  Top,  topmost. 

2.   "He  stood  upon  the  topmost  round." 

OBS.  7. — Some  Adjectives  can  not  "be  compared — the  qualities  they 
indicate  not  being  susceptible  of  increase  or  diminution. 

EXAMPLES.  —Bound— sq  uare— triangular— infinite. 


EECAPITTJLATION, 

Superlative. 


ADJECTIVES  are  distinguished  as. .  , 


Qualifying 


Comparative. 

Positive. 

Diminutive 

( Pure. 


Specifying 4  Numeral. 

{  Possessive. 


Verbal. 


J  Transitive. 
I  Intransitive. 


EXERCISES. 

$&**  Let  the  Pupil  determine  which  of  the  following  Adjectives  are 
Qualifying,  which  are  Specifying,  and  which  are  Verbal.  Of  the  Qual- 
ify ing  Adjectives,  which  can  be  compared,  and  how  compared— of  the 
Specifying  Adjectives,  which  are  Pure,  which  Numeral,  and  which  Pos- 
sessive—of the  Verbal,  which  are  Transitive  and  which  are  Intransitive. 

Able,  False,  That,  Forgotten, 

Bold,  Good,  Three,  Standing, 

Capable,  Honest,  Tenth,  ^         Loving, 

Doubtful,  Infinite,  Twice,  Admonished, 

Eager,  Just,  Several,  Unknown. 

^^*"  Let  the  Pupil  point  out  the  Adjectives,  Nouns,  and  Pronouns 
in  the  following  Sentences,  and  name  their  classes  and  modifications. 
Let  him  be  careful  to  give  a  reason  for  the  classification  and  mod- 
ification of  each,  by  repeating  the  appropriate  definitions  and  obser- 
vations. 


104:  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR — PAET  II. 

1.  Good  scholars  secure  the  highest  approbation  of  their  teacher. 

2.  Some  men  do  not  give' their  children  a  proper  education. 

3.  A  trifling  accident  often  produces  great  results. 

4.  An  ignorant  rich  man  is  less  esteemed  than  a  wise  poor  man. 

5.  The  richest  treasure  mortal  times  afford,  is,  spotless  reputation. 

6.  '  *  These  dim  vaults, 
These  winding  aisles,  of  human  pomp  or  pride, 

7.  Report  not.     No  fantastic  carvings  show 

The  boast  of  our  vain  race,  to  change  the  form 

8.  Of  thy  fair  works.     Thou  art  in  the  soft  winds 
That  run  along  the  summits  of  these  trees 

9.  In  music  :  thou  art  in  the  cooler  breath, 
That,  from  the  inmost  darkness  of  the  place, 

10.  Comes,  scarcely  felt ;  the  barky  trunks,  the  ground, 
The  fresh,  moist  ground,  are  all  instinct  with  thee." 


FIRST    MODEL. 

These. . .  .describes  "  vaults  ;"  hence  an  Adjective — for  "  a  Word  used 

to  qualify  or  otherwise  describe  a  Noun  or  a  Pronoun,  is  an 

Adjective." 
"     ...  .Specifies  ;  hence  Specifying — for  "  an  Adjective  used  only  to 

limit,  is  a  Specifying  Adjective." 
Dim qualifies  "  vaults  ;' '  hence  an  Adjective — for  "a  Word  used 

to  qualify  or  otherwise  describe  a  Noun  or  a  Pronoun,  is  an 

Adjective." 
"     ....Expresses  a  quality;  hence  Qualifying — for  "  a  Word  used 

to  describe  a  Noun  by  expressing  a  quality,  is  a  Qualifying 

Adjective." 
Vaults ...  is  a  Name  ;  hence  a  Noun — for  '  *  the  Name  of  a  being,  place, 

or  thing,  is  a  Noun." 
"      . .  .Name  of  a  sort  or  class  ;  hence  common — for  "  a  Name  used 

to  designate  a  class  or  sort  of  beings,  places,  or  things,  is  a 

Common  Noun." 
"       . .  .Spoken  of  ;  hence,  Third  Person — for  "  the  Name  of  a  person 

or  thing  spoken  of,  is  of  the  Third  Person. ' ' 
"       . .  .Denotes  more  than  one  ;  hence  Plural  Number — for  "  Nouns 

denoting  more  than  one,  are  of  the  Plural  Number." 
"       .  .  .Subject  of  the  Sentence  ;  hence  Nominative  Case— for  "  the 

subject  of  a  Sentence  is  in  the  Nominative  Case.'' 
Winding .  describes  "aisles;"  hence  an  Adjective — for  "a  Word  used 


ADJECTIVES  -  EXERCISES  -  MODEL.  105 

to  qualify  or  otherwise  describe  a  Noun  or  a  Pronoun,  is  an 

Adjective." 
"Winding  .  describes,  by  expressing  a  condition  ;  hence  Verbal  —  for  "  a 

Word  used  to  describe  a  Noun  by  expressing,  incidentally,  a 

condition,  state,  or  act,  is  a  Verbal  Adjective." 
Human  .  .describes  "  pomp"  or  *'  pride  ;"  hence  an  Adjective  —  for  "a 

Word  used  to  qualify  or  otherwise  describe  a  Noun  or  a  Pro- 

noun, is  tin  Adjective." 
"      ...  Expresses  a  quality  ;  hence  Qualifying  —  for  '  '  a  Word  used  to 

describe  a  Noun  by  expressing  a  quality,  is  a  Qualifying  Ad- 

jective." 

[It  is  profitable  to  repeat  the  Definitions  until  they  become  familiar  ; 
after  that  they  may  be  omitted  —  the  parts  of  speech  and  the  classes  and 
modifications  of  the  several  Words  being  simply,  named,  as  in  the  fol- 
lowing exercise.] 

SECOND  MODEL. 

'  '  No  fantastic  carvings  show  "^^ 

The  boast  of  our  vain  race,  to  change  the  form 
Of  thy  fair  works.  '  ' 

Class.      Person.  Number.  Case. 

Ho  is  an  Adjective  Specifying,  -  -  limits  "  carvings." 
Fantastic"  Adjective  Qualifying,  -  -  qualifies  "  carvings." 
Carvings  "  Noun  Common,  Third,  Plu.  Nom.  to  "  show.  " 

The.  "     Adjective    Specifying,  -    -  limits  "boast." 

Boast         "     Noun  Common,    Third,  Sing.          Obj.  of  "  show." 


he  Teacher  will  abridge  or  extend  these  Exercises  at  pleasure. 
Then  let  four  Sentences  be  made,  each  containing  the  Word  good,  so 
that,  in  the  first,  it  will  qualify  the  Subject—  in  the  second,  the  Object 

—  in  the  third,  the  Object  of  a  Phrase  attached  to  the  Subject  —  in  the 
fourth,  the  Object  of  a  Phrase  attached  to  the  Object. 

In  like  manner  use  the  Words  amiable  —  honest  —  industrious  —  wise  —  this 

—  some  —  loving  —  loved.     Thus, 

1  That  amiable  young  lady  was  at  the  lecture. 

2.  We  saw  the  amiable  gentleman. 

3.  The  benefits  of  an  amiable  disposition  are  numerous. 

4.  She  possesses  the  advantages  of  an  amiable  temper. 


106  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR PART    II. 


ADJECTIVE    PHRASES    AND    SENTENCES. 

HEM. — Things  may  be  described  not  only  by  Words,  but  also  "by  Phrases 
and  by  Sentences. 

EXAMPLES. 

Adjective  Phrases.— I.   "  The  TIME  of  my  departure  is  at  hand." 

2.  "  Night  is  the  TIME  for  rest." 

3.  "  Turn,  gentle  HERMIT  of  the  vale.' 

Adjective  Sentences. — 1.   "  HE  that  getteth  wisdom,  loveth  his  own  soul." 

2.  Mount  the  HORSE  which  I  have  chosen  for  thee. 

3.  "  THOU,  -whose  spell  can  raise  the  dead, 

I>id  the  prophet's  form  appear." 


QUESTIONS   FOR   REVIEW. 

97.  What  is  an  Adjective  ? See  Def.  86. 

Why  are  Adjectives  used  ?  . . . , .  .See  Rem.  1. 

For  what  various  purposes  are  Adjectives  used  ? See  Rem.  2. 

How  are  Adjectives  distinguished  ? 

What  is  a  Qualifying  Adjective  ? See  Def.  87. 

98.  What  is  a  Specifying  Adjective  ? See  Def  88. 

What  is  a  Proper  Adjective? See  Obs.  1. 

What  is  an  Interrogative  Adjective  ? See  Obs. 

H^w  are  Specifying  Adjectives  distinguished  9 

What  is  a  Pure  Specifying  Adjective  ? See  Def.. 89. 

99.  What  is  a  Possessive  Specifying  Adjective  ? See  Def.  90. 

flow  are  Possessive  Adjectives/ormcd  ? See  Note. 

What  is  a  Numeral  Adjective  ? See  Def.  91. 

What  is  a  Verbal  Adjective  ? See  Def.  92. 

100.  How  are  Verbal  Adjectives  distinguished? 

101.  How  are  Adjectives  modified? 

H*ow  many  Degrees  of  Comparison  may  some  Adjec- 
tives have  ? 

When  is  an  Adjective  of  the  Diminutive  form  ? See  Def.  93. 

When  is  an  Adjective  of  the  Positive  form  ? See  Def.  94. 

When  is  an  Adjective  of  the  Superlative  form  ? See  Def.  96, 

102    What  is  said  of  Comparison  descending  ? See  Obs.  2. 

When  do  we  prefix  a  Word  to  denote  Comparison  ? — See  Obs  3. 

What  Adjectives  are  compared  irregularly  9 
103.  Are  all  Adjectives  compared  ? See  Obs.  7. 


VEEBS CLASSIFICATION.  107 


VERBS. 

HEM. — As  all  things  in  the  universe  live,  move,  or  have  a  being,  we 
necessarily  have  a  class  of  Words  used  to  express  the  act,  being,  or  state 
of  those  things.  Henqe, 

DBF.  97. — A  Verb  is  a  Word  used  to  express  the  act, 
being,  or  state  of  a  person  or  thing. 


CLASSIFICATION". 

REM. — The  act  expressed  by  some  Verbs  passes  over  to  an  Object. 
Hence, 

Verbs  are  distinguished  as 

^Transitive  or  Intransitive. 

DEF.  98. — A  Verb  is  Transitive  when  it  expresses  an 
action  which  terminates  on  an  Object. 

EXAMPLES. — John  saws  wood — God  created  heaven  and  earth. 

DEF.  99, — A  Verb  is  Intransitive  when  it  expresses  the 
being  or  state  of  its  Subject,  or  an  action  which  does  not 
terminate  on  an  Object. 

EXAMPLES. — Animals  run— I  sit — John  is  sleepy. 

OBS.  1. — Some  Verbs  are  used  transitively  or  intransitively. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  "  Cold  blows  the  wind." 

2.  '*  The  wind  blows  the  dust." 

3.  "It  has  swept  through  the  earth." 

4.  "  Jane  has  swept  the  floor." 

6.   "God  moves  in  a  mysterious  way." 
6.   *'  Such  influences  do  not  move  me." 

DEF.  100. — The  Verbs  be,  become,  and  other  Intransitive 
Verbs,  whose  Subjects  are  not  represented  as  performing 
action,  are  called  Neuter  Verbs. 

EXAMPLES. — He  w — God  exists — We  facome  wise — They  die. 


108  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR — PART   II. 

LIST. 

OBS. — The  Verbs  commonly  called  Neuter  are — appertain — be— become 
— belojig — exist — lie — rest — seem — sleep. 


MODIFICATION    OF   VERBS. 

REM. — Verbs  that  denote  action,  have  two  methods  of  representing 
the  action. 

1st— As  done  by  its  Subject — as,  Clara  loves  Anna. 
2d — As  done  to  its  Subject — as,  Anna  is  loved  by  Clara. 

Hence, 

Transitive  Verbs  have  two  Voices — 

The  Active  and  the  Passive. 

DEF.  101. — A  Yerb  in  the  Active  Voice  represents  its 
Subject  as  performing  an  action. 
EXAMPLE. — Columbus  discovered  America. 

DEF.  102. — A  Yerb  in  the  Passive  Voice  represents  its 
Subject  as  being  acted  upon. 

EXAMPLE. — America  was  discovered  by  Columbus. 

OBS.  1. — The  same  fact  may  commonly  be  expressed  by  either  the 
Active  or  the  Passive  form. 

EXAMPLES. — William  assists  Charles.  )  m 

Charles  *  a*utod  by  William.  \  ^^  wme  fact  stated' 

"  William,"  the  Subject  of  the  Active  Verb,  becomes  the  Object  of 
"by,"  when  the  Verb  becomes  Passive  ;  and  "  Charles/''  the  Object  of 
the  Active  Verb,  becomes  the  Subject  of  the  Passive. 

OBS.  2. — In  the  English  language,  the  formation  of  the  Passive  Voice 
is  less  simple  than  in  many  other  languages.  Thus,  the  corresponding 
assertions, 

IN  LATIN. — Doceo,  in  the  Active  Voice,  has  Doceor    in  the  Passive. 

IN  ENGLISH. — I  teach,     "  "  "         "   lamtauyht  "  " 

Hence,  the  English  Verb  does  not  form  its  Passive  Voice  by  an  "inflec- 
tion of  the  form  of  the  Active,"  but  by  combining  the  Verb  be,  in  its 
various  modifications,  with  a  Participle  of  the  given  Verb. 


VERBS MODE.  109 

EXAMPLES. 

Active. — To  see,         I  love,  They  applaud,  Man  worships, 

Passive. — To  be  seen,    I  am  loved,    They  are  applauded,    God     is    wor- 
shiped. 

OBS.  3. — Most  Transitive  Verbs  may  take  the  Passive  form. 

OBS.  4. — A  Verb  taking  the  Passive  form,  becomes  grammatically 
intransitive.  The  action  is  directed  to  no  Object.  The  Subject  receives 
the  action. 

OBS.  5. — But  few  Intransitive  Verbs  take  the  Passive  form. 

EXAMPLES. 

1.  "We  laugked  at  his  clownish  performances. — (Active  Intrans.) 

2.  His  clownish  performance  was  laughed  at— (Passive.) 


MODE. 

EEM. — In  addition  to  their  primary  signification,  Verbs  perform  a 
secondary  office  L  e.,  they  indicate  some  attendant  or  qualifying  cir> 
cumstances.  This  is  indicated  by  the  variations  of  the  form  of  the 
Verb,  or  by  prefixing  Auxiliary  Words. 

1.  A  Verb  m'ay  simply  express  a  fact. 

2.  It  may  express  a  fact  as  possible,  probable,  obligatory,  etc. 

3.  It  may  express  a  fact  conditionally. 

4    It  may  express -a  command  or  request. 

5.  It  may  express  the  name  of  an  act,  or  a  fact  unlimited  by  a  Sub- 
ject. Hence, 

Verbs  have  five  modes  of  expressing  their  signification — 
The  Indicative,  The  Subjunctive^ 


The  Potential, 


The  Imperative,  and 


The  Infinitive. 

» 

DEF.  103. — A  Verb  used  simply  to  indicate  or  assert  a 
fact,  is  in  the 

Indicative  Mode. 

EXAMPLES.  —  1.   "  God  created  the  heaven  and  the  earth." 

2.  '*  Rays  of  limpid  light  gleamed  round  their  path." 
10 


110  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR — PART   II. 

DEF.  104. — A  Verb  indicating  probab ility,  power  ^  will, 
or  obligation,  of  its  Subject,  is  in  the 

Potential  Mode. 

„  OBS. — Words  which  may  be  regarded  as  signs  of  the  Potential  Mode, 
are,  may—  might — can — could — must  — sJiall — should  —  will  —  would,  either 
alone,  or  followed  by  the  Word  have. 

EXAMPLES. — I  may  go — You  might  have  gone — John  should  study — Mary 
can  learn — It  could  not  be  done — John  shall  study. 

OBS.— Verbs  in  the  Indicative  and  the  Potential  Modes  may  be  used  in 
Interrogative  Sentences.  (See  p.  93.) 

EXAMPLES. — 1.   "  Did  Claudius  waylay  Milo  ?" 

2.   "  May  one  be  pardoned  and  retain  the  offense  ?" 

DEF.  105.  —  A  Yerb  expressing  a  fact  conditionally 
(hypothetically)  is  in  the 

Subjunctive  Mode. 
4     EXAMPLE. — "  If  he  repent,  forgive  him." 

OBS. — If,  though,  unless,  and  other  Conjunctions,  are  commonly  used 
with  the  Subjunctive  Mode.  But  they  are  not  to  be  regarded  as  the 
signs  of  this  Mode,  for  they  are  also  used  wiljh.  the  Indicative  and  with 
the  Potential. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  If  the  boat  goes  to-day,  I  shall  go  in  it. 
2.  I  would  stay,  if  I  could  conveniently. 

The  condition  expressed  by  "if  the  boat  goes,"  is  assumed  as  a  fact 
— hence,  "  goes"  is  in  the  Indicative  Mode. 

NOTE. — The  Subjunctive  Mode  is  limited  to  Auxiliary  Sentences. 

DEF.  106. — A  Yerb  used  to  command  or  entreat  is  in 
the 

Imperative  Mode. 

EXAMPLES. — 1 .   "  If  he  repent,  forgive  him. ' ' 

2.   **  Come  to  the  bridal  chamber,  Death  !" 

OBS. — As  we  can  command  only  a  person  or  thing  addressed,  the 
subject  of  an  Imperative  Verb  must  be  of  the  Second  Person  ;  and,  as  a 
person  addressed  is  supposed  to  he  present  to  the  speaker,  the  name  of 
the  Subject  is  usually  understood. 

EXAMPLES. — Ory  aloud — spare  not. 


PARTICIPLES.  Ill 

But  it  is  often  expressed. 

' '  Go  ye  into  all  the  world. ' ' 

DEF.  107. — A  Verb  used  without  limitation  by  a  Sub- 
ject, is  in  the 

Infinitive  Mode. 

OBS.  1. — The  Preposition  to,  is  usually  placed  before  the  Infinitive 
Verb, 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  "  To  enjoy  is  to  obey/' 

2.   "  I  came  not  here  to  talk." 

OBS.  2.— But  that  Word  is  sometimes  suppressed.     (See  p.  269). 
EXAMPLE. — "  Let  me  hear  thy  voice,  awake,  and  bid  her 
Give  me  new  and  glorious  hopes." 

OBS.  3. — As  a  Verb  in  the  Infinitive  has  no  grammatical  Subject,  it 
can  not  be  a  Predicate.  It  is  used,  in  combination  with  its  Preposition, 

1.  Substantively  ;  as — To  do  good  is  the  duty  of  all. 

2.  Adjectively;       as — The  way  to  do  good. 

3.  Adverbially  ;     as — I  ought  to  do  good. 

PARTICIPLES. 

EEM. — In  the  three  Sentences,  , 

1 .  Birds  sing, 

2.  Birds  are  singing, 

3.  Singing  birds  delight  us, 

the  Word  "sing"  (in  Example  1)  is  a  Verb — used  to  assert  an  act  of 
"  birds." 

In  Example  2,  "  singing"  is  derived  from  the  same  Verb ;  and  with 
the  aid  of  the  Auxiliary  Verb  "  are,"  it  makes  the  same  assertion. 

In  Example  3,  *'  singing"  does  not  assert,  but  it  assumes  the  same  act. 

The  same  signification  remains  in  the  three  Words,  while  they  per- 
form different  grammatical  offices.  Hence, 

DEF.  108. — A  Participle  is  a  "Word  derived  from  a  Verb, 
retaining  the  signification  of  its  Yerb,  while  it  also  per- 
forms the  office  of  some  other  "  part  of  speech." 

Ocs. — Participles  are  Derivative  Words,  formed  from  their  Radi- 
cals— commonly  by  the  addition  of  ing  or  ed. 

EXAMPLES. — Be . being.  Love loving loved. 

Have . .  .having.  Walk walking walked. 


112  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR — PART   II. 

REM. — A  Participle  is  used  with  or  without  an  Auxiliary  prefixed. 
Hence, 

Participles  are  \  ®™ple  or 
(  Compound. 

DEF.  109. — A  Simple  Participle  is  a  single  Word  de- 
rived from  its  Verb. 

EXAMPLES. — Loving,  loved — having,  had — being,  been. 

DEF.  110. — A  Compound  Participle  consists  of  a  simple 
Participle,  with  the  Auxiliary  Participles  "having"  or 
"  being,"  or  "  having  been." 

EXAMPLES. 

\  L  LovinS Fearing. 

I  2.  Loved Feared. 

S3.  Being  loved Being  feared. 
4.  Having  loved Having  feared. 
5.  Having  been  loved. Having  been  feared. 
6    Having  been  loving Having  been  fearing. 

EEM.  1. — Tn  giving  names  to  the  different  Participles,  grammarians 
are  not  agreed.  By  different  authors  the  Simple  Participles  are  dis- 
tinguished as  Present  and  Past, 

'  *          Active  and  Passive, ' 

"          Imperfect  and  Perfect, 

"         First  and  Second,  and  by  other  terms. 

HEM.  2. — While  none  of  the  above  names  can  be  regarded  as  wholly 
free  from  imperfections,  those  first  mentioned  are  perhaps  less  objec- 
tionable than  others.  Hence, 

Participles  are  distinguished  as 

1.  Present, 

2.  Prior  Present •, 

3.  Past. 

DEF.  111. — The  Present  Partible  is  the  Participle 
formed  by  adding  ing  to  the  root  of  the  Verb,  and  com- 
monly indicates  a  present  act,  being,  or  state. 

EXAMPLES. — Being- -having — loving — walking— doing — fearing. 

OBS. — "When  the  Participle  is  used  with  a  Verb,  the  time  is  indi- 
cated by  the  Verb,  and  may  be  Present,  Past,  or  Future. 


PARTICIPLES.  113 

EXAMPLES. — Present. — I  am  writing  letters. 
Past. — I  was  writing  letters. 
Future, — I  shall  be  writing  letters, 

DEF.  112,  a. — A  Past  Participle  is  the  Participle  that 
is  regularly  formed  by  adding  ed  to  the  root  of  its  Verb. 
EXAMPLES. — Loved— feared — hated — respected. 

OBS.  1. — The  Past  Participles  of  Irregular  Verbs  are  variously  formed. 
[See  List.] 

OBS.  2. — The  Past  Participle  may  be  used  with  a  Verb  indicating 
time,  Present,  Past,  or  Future.  , 

EXAMPLES. — Present. — I  am  loved William  is  seen. 

.Past. — I  was  loved William  was  seen.  f 

Future. — I  shall  be  loved William  will  be  seen. 

OBS.  3. — The  Present  Participle  is  commonly  Active  in  signification. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  A  falling  leaf. — 2.  A  fading  flower. 

3.  "Scaling 'yonder  peak, 

I  saw  an  eagle,  wheeling  near  its  brow." 

OBS.  4. — The  Past  Participle  is  commonly  Passive  in  signification. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  Injured  reputation. — 2.  Lost  opportunity. 
3.   ''Truth  crushed  to  earth,  will  rise  again." 

OBS.  5. — A  Participle  of  an  Active  Verb,  preceded  by  the  Auxiliary 
having,  is  used  actively. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  Having  loved.— 2    Having  lost  a  day. 

3.  "  The  hour  having  arrived,  we  c^tnmenced  the  exercises." 

4,  Having  seen  the  elephant,  the  rustic  was  satisfied. 

OBS.  6. — Preceded  by  the  Auxiliary  being,  or  having  been,  the  Past 
Participle  is  used  passively, 
EXAMPLES. — 1.  Being  loved. 

2.  Having  been  censured  for  idleness,  John  resolved  to 
be  diligent. 

HEM. — The  above  and  similar  combinations  of  the  Present  Participle 
with  the  Past,  indicate  Prior  Present  Tense.  Hence, 

DEF.  112,  b. — A  Prior  Present  Participle  is  a  Participle 
compounded  of  a  Present  and  a  Past  Participle. 

OBS.  7>  A  Compound  Participle  may  be  Present  or  Prior  Present- 
Active  or  Passive. 

10* 


114:  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR  -  PART   II. 

EXAMPLES,  —  Present.  —  Being  loved  ............  Being  se.en. 

Prior  Present.  —  Having  loved  ..........  Having  seen. 

Actwe      ^avm£  l°ve(l  ..........  Having  seen. 

' 


I  Having  been  walking.  .  .Having  been  seeing. 

\  Being  loved  ............  Being  seen' 

(  Having  been  loved  .....  Having  been  seen. 


OBS.  8. — The  term  Participle  is  given  to  these  words  because  they 
participate  in  the  offices  of  two  "parts  of  speech"  at  the  same  time  : — 
that  of  the  Verbs  from  which  they  are  derived,  and  also  of  Nouns,  of 
Adjectives,  of  Adverbs,  of  Prepositions,  of  Conjunctions — in  Predicate  with 
Auxiliary  Verbs,  or  to  introduce  Participial  Phrases. 

EXAMPLES. 

1.  Noun (a).  Singing  is  a  pleasing  exercise. 

(Z>).  William  maintains  a  fair  standing  in  society, 
(c).   "  In  the  beginning,  God  created  the  heaven." 

2.  Adjective (d).  A  running  BROOK — a  standing  TREE. 

(e).  Behold  the  GOOSE  standing  on  one  foot. 

3.  Adverb (/).  "  'Tis  strange  ;  'tis  passing  STRANGE." 

(g).  The  task  was  exceedingly  DIFFICULT. 

4.  Preposition (h).   "I  speak  concerning  Christ  and  the  Church. 

(i).   "  Nothing  was  said  touching  that  question." 

5.  Conjunction (k).  "  Seeing  we  can  not  agree,  the  discussion  may 

be  dropped." 

6.  Exclamation (Z).  Shocking  I    Astonishing  ! 

7.  In  Predicate (m).   "Birds  are  singing — bees  are  humming.1* 

8.  Leader  of  Phrase,  (n}.   Wounding  $he  feelings  of  others. 

(o).   "  Avoid  wounding  the  feelings  of  others. ' ' 
(p).  A  habit  of  moving  quickly,  is  another  way  of 
gaining  time. 

OBS.  9. — Participles,  like  the  Verbs  from  which  they  are  derived,  are 
Transitive  or  Intransitive. 

OBS.  10  — A  Participle  used  as  a  Preposition,  must  be  Transitive. 
EXAMPLE.—"  I  speak  concerning  Christ  and  the  Church." 

OBS,  11. — A  Participle  used  as  a  Noun,  as  an  Adjective,  or  in  Predi- 
cate, or  as  the  Leader  of  a  Participial  Phrase,  may  be  Intransitive  or 
Transitive. 


PARTICIPLES TENSE.  115 


(a)  Intransitive. 

1.  Noun "  Scolding  has  long  been  considered  ungenteel. 

2.  Adjective  .  /'The  curfew  tolls  the  knell  of  parting  day." 

3.  Predicate...1'  Spring-time  of  year  is  coming." 

(b)  Transitive. 

4.  Teaching  Clara,  is  a  pleasing  occupation. 

5.  "  Scaling  yonder  peak,  I  saw  an  eagle.' 

6.  We  are  studying  grammar. 

OBS..12.— A  Participle  used  as  a  Conjunction  or  as  an  Adverb  must 
be  Intransitive. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  "  Wherefore  is  there  a  price  in  the  hands  of  a  fool  to 

get  wisdom,  seeing  he  hath  no  heart  to  it." 
2.  "  A  virtuous  household,  but  exceeding  poor." 

TENSE. 

HEM. — Generally  the  form  of  the  Yerb  denotes  not  only  the  manner, 
but  also  the  time,  of  the  action  or  event  expressed  by  it.  Hence  the 
distinction  of  Tense. 

DEF.  113. — Tense  is  a  modification  of  Verbs,  denoting 
distinction  of  time. 

KEM,— Time  is  Present,  Past,  or  Future:  of  each  of  these  periods  we 
have  two  varieties,  represented  by  different  forms.  Hence, 

Most  Verbs  have  six  Tenses — 

Prior  Past  and  Past, 
Prior  Present  and  Present, 
Prior  Future  and  Future. 

DEF.  114. — A  Verb  in  the  Prior  Past   Tense  denotes 
time  past  at  some  other  past  time  mentioned,  or  implied. 
EXAMPLE. — I  had  already  expressed  my  opinion.  **• 

OBs.—Had,  prefixed  to  a  Participle,  is  usually  the  sign  of  this  Tense. 

DEF.  115. — A  Verb  in  ihoPast  Tense  denotes  time  fully 
past. 

EXAMPLES.— I  wrote  you  a  letter.— We  walked  to  Troy. 
I  saw  an  eagle. — David  loved  Jonathan. 


116  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR PART   II. 

OBS. — In  Regular  Verbs,  the  sign  of  this  Tense  is  d  or  ed  added  to  the 
root  of  the  Verb. 

In  Irregular  Verbs,  a  distinct  form  is  used.     [See  List.] 

DEF.  116. — The  Prior  Present  Tense  denotes  time  past, 
but  in  a  period  reaching  to  the  present. 

EXAMPLES. — I  have  completed  my  task. — John  has  returned. 

Mary  has  been  prospered, — Thou  hast  destroyed  thyself. 

OBS. — Have,  hast,  and  has,  are  the  signs  of  this  Tense. 

DEF/ 11 7. — The  Present  Tense  denotes  time  present. 

EXAMPLES. — Eliza  studies. — Ellen  is  reading.— Clara  can  sing. 

Do  you  hear  that  bell  ? — Emily  may  ivrite  that  diagram. 

OBS.  1. — This  is  the  simplest  form  of  the  Verb — the  sign  do  is  used 
to  denote  intensity,  and  in  asking  questions. 

OBS.  2. — Present  Tense  may  be — 

1.  Definite— as,  I  am  writing. — William  studies. 

2.  Indefinite— as,  Virtue  is  commendable. 

DE"F.  118. — The  Prior  Future  Tense  denotes  time  past, 
as  compared  with  some  future  time  specified. 

EXAMPLE. — We  shall  have  finished  this  recitation  before  the  next  class 
will  come. 

OBS. — Shall  have  and  mil  have,  are  the  signs  of  this  Tense. 

DEF.  119. — The  Future  Tense  denotes  future  time,  as 
compared  with  the  present. 

EXAMPLE. — James  will  return  to-morrow — I  shall  see  him, 

OBS. — Shall,  in  the  First  Person,  and  will,  in  the  Second  and  Third, 
are  the  signs  of  this  Tense. 

REM. — Distinctions  of  time  are  not  indicated  with  precision  by  the 
form  of  the  Verb.  This  must  be  done  by  the  use  of  Adjuncts. 

In  the  Potential  Mode,  the  Tenses  are  quite  Indefinite — one  form 
being  often  used  for  another  [See  p,  122.] 

The  same  remarks  will  apply  to  Participles— to  the  Infinitive,  to  the 
Subjunctive,  and  sometimes  to  the  Indicative  Mode. 


PARTICIPLES TENSE EXERCISES. 

RECAPITULATION. 


117 


VERB,  - 


TRANSITIVE. 


INTRANSITIVE. 


'  Indicative  .  .  - 

'Prior  Past, 
Past, 
Prior  Present, 
Present, 
Prior  Future, 
Future. 

f  ACTIVE. 
(  PASSIVE. 

Potential  .  .  . 

!  Prior  Past, 
Past, 
Prior  Present, 
Present. 

(  ACTIVE. 
(  NEUTER. 

Subjunctive.   - 
Imperative  ,  . 

Past, 
Present. 

Present. 

Infinitive.  .  .   • 

Prior  Present, 
Present. 

Participle  .  .   < 

Past, 
Prior  Present, 
Present. 

EXERCISES. 

each  Verb  and  Participle  in  the  following  Exercises  be 
pointed  out,  and  its  Class  and  Modification  given. 


7.  Willing  to  be  taught. 

8.  Having  seen  the  teacher. 

9.  Retire. 

10.  Let  us  alone. 

11.  Permit  me  to  pa 

12.  Let  me  go. 


1.  I  wrote. 

2.  Thou  art  reading. 

3.  James  may  recite. 

4.  Mary  can  study. 

6.  Joining  the  multitude. 
Accustomed  to  study. 

13.  It  is  pleasant  to  ride  in  a  sail-boat. 

14.  We  are  all  fond  of  singing. 

15.  Some  are  accustomed  to  sing  by  note. 

16.  The  young  ladies  ought  to  have  attended  the  lecture. 

17.  By  teaching  others,  we  improve  ourselves. 

18.  Being  accustomed  to  study,  we  can  learn  that  lesson  easily. 

19.  Having  been  censured  for  idleness,  John  has  resolved  to  be 

diligent. 

20.  By  endeavoring  to  please  all,  we  fail  to  please  any. 


118  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR PART   II. 

21.  "  To  be  or  not  to  be— that  is  the  question/' 

22.  "  Spirit !  I  feel  that  thou 

Wilt  soon  depart ! 

23.  This  body  is  too  weak  longer  to  hold 
The  immortal  part. 

24.  The  ties  of  earth  are  loosening — 

25.  They  will  soon  break  ; 

26.  And  thou,  even  as  a  joyous  bird, 
Thy  flight  will  take 

I  To  the  eternal  world."  <* 

27.  Go  forth  when  midnight  winds  are  high, 

And  ask  them  whence  they  come  ; 

28.  Who  sent  them  raging  through  the  sky, 

29.  And  where  is  their  far  home ! 

30.  "Mark  the  sable  woods, 

That  shade  sublime  yon  mountain's  nodding  brow. 

31.  With  what  religious  awe,  the  solemn  scene. 
Commands  your  steps. 

32.  As  if  the  reverend  form 
Of  Minos  or  of  Numa  should  forsake 

The  Elysian  seats,  and,  down  the  embowering  glad«, 
Move  to  your  pausing  eye." 

33.  "  In  the  pleased  infant,  see  its  power  expand, 

Whef? first  the  coral  fills  his  little  hand  ; 

34.  Throned  in  his  mother's  lap,  it  dries  each  tear, 
As  her  sweet  legend  falls  upon 'his  ear  ; 

35.  Next  it  assails  him  in  his  top's  strange  hum, 
Breathes  in  his  whistle,  echoes  in  his  drum  ; 

36.  Each  gilded  toy  that  doting  love  bestows, 
He  longs  to  break,  and  every  spring  expose." 

37.  "  Could  I  forget 

What  I  have  been,  I  might  the  better  bear 
What  I  am  destined  to. 

38.  I  am  not  the  first 

That  has  been  wretched  but  to  think  how  much 
I  have  been  happier." 

39.  "Truth  crushed  to  earth,  will  rise  again  ; 

40.  The  eternal  years  of  God  are  hers  : 

41.  But  Error,  wounded,  writhes  in  pain, 
And  dies  amid  her  worshipers. ' ' 


PARTICIPLES — EXERCISES MODEL. 


119 


Let  the  Verbs  and  Participles  on  the  preceding  page  be  parsed  ac- 
coiding  to  the  following 

MODEL. 

Crushed is  [a  Participle,  from  the  Verb  crush  ;]  used  here  to  describe 

a  condition  of  "Truth  ;"  hence,  a  Verbal  Adjective. 
Will  rise  ....  asserts  an  act  of  "Truth  ;"  hence,  a  Verb. 

has  no  object ;  hence,  Intransitive. 
"  simply  declares  ;  hence,  Indicative  Mode. 

"  denotes  time  future  ;  hence,  Future  Tense. 

Are asserts  being  of  "  years  ;"  hence,  a  Verb. 

"  has  no  object ;  hence,  Intransitive. 

simply  declares  ;  hence,  Indicative  Mode, 
denotes  time  present ;  hence,  Present  Tense. 

"Wounded. ...  is  [a  Participle,  from  the  Verb  wound ;]  used  here  to  de- 
scribe a  condition  of  "  Error  ;"  hence,  a  Verbal  Adjective. 

Writhes asserts  an  act  of  "  Error  ;"  hence,  a  Verb. 

"  has  no  object ;  hence,  Intransitive. 

simply  declares  ;  hence,  Indicative  Mode, 
denotes  time  present ;  hence,  Present  Tense. 

"  The  surging  billows  and  the  gamboling  storms 
Come  crouching  to  his  feet." 

Surging is  [a  Participle,  from  the  Verb  surge;]  used  here  to  describe 

"billows;"  hence,  a  Verbal  Adjective. 

Gamboling .  .is  [a  Participle,  from  the  Verb  gambol ;]  used  here  to  describe 
"storms;"  hence,  a  Verbal  Adjective. 

Come asserts  an  act  of  "  billows"  and  "  storms  ;"  hence,  a  Verb. 

"  has  no  object ;  hence  Intransitive. 

"  simply  declares ;  hence,  Indicative  Mode. 

"  denotes  time  present  ;  hence,  Present  Tense. 

Crouching. .  .is  [a  Participle,  from  the  Verb  crouch;]  used  here  to  modify 

the  act  expressed  by  "come  ;" 

"  (it  declares  the  manner  of  coming  ;)  hence,  an  Adverb  by 

representation.      [See  p.  249,  Obs.  5.] 

"In  the  beginning,  God  created  the  heaven  and  the  earth." 

Beginning  . .  .is  [a  Participle,  from  the  Verb  begin ;]  used  here  as  the 

name  of  an  event ;  hence,  a  Verbal  Noun. 
Created asserts  an  act  of  "  God  ;"  hence,  a  Verb. 

act  passes  to  objects  (heaven  and  earth) — Transitive. 

simply  declares  ;  hence,  Indicative  Mode. 

denotes  a  particular  time  past ;  hence,  Past  Tense. 


120  ENGLISH   GEAMMAE PAET   H. 


CONJUGATION  OF  VEEBS. 

REMARK  1. — We  have  seen  that  most  verbs  are  varied  in  form  to  de- 
note different  modes  and  limes  of  action  or  "being. 

They  are  also  varied  to  correspond  with  their  subjects  in  Person  and 
Number. 

The  regular  arrangement  of  the  various  forms  of  a  Verb  is  called  its 
Conjugation. 

REM.  2. — Verbs  "are  varied  by  inflection  of  their  Radicals,  or  by  the 
use  of  different  Radicals.  Hence,  in  their  methods  of  Conjugation, 

Verbs  are  distinguished  as 

Regular  and  Irregular. 

REGULAR   VERBS. 

DEF.  120. — A  Verb  whose  Past  Tense  is  formed  by  the 
addition  of  ed  to  the  Radical,  is  Regular  in  Conjugation. 

EXAMPLES. — Present  Tense.  —  I  love,      act,      save,      fear. 
Past  Tense. — I  loved,     acted,  saved,     feared. 

OBS.  1. — Some  Verbs,  for  euphony,  drop  the  final  letter  of  the 
Radical. 

EXAMPLES. — Love,  loved. — Save,  saved.— Recite,  recited. 

OBS  2. — Some  Verbs,  for  euphony,  double  a  final  letter  of  the 
Radical. 

EXAMPLES. — Tan,  tanned. — Transmit,  transmitted. 


IRREGULAR   VERBS. 

DEF.  121. — A  Yerb  whose  Past  Tense  is  not  made  by 
the  addition  of  d  or  ed  to  the  Radical,  is  Irregular  in  Con- 
jugation. 

EXAMPLES. — Present  Tense. — I  am,     see,     do,     hide,     lay. 
Past  Tense. — I  was,    saw,    did,   hid,       laid. 

REM. — Some  Irregular  Verbs  are  not  used  in  all  the  Modes  and  Tenses ; 
Hence, 


VERBS CLASSES.  121 

DEF.  122. — A  Defective  Verb  is  a  Yerb  that  is  not  used 
in  all  the  Modes  and  Tenses. 


Present.— Can,       may,      must,      ought,  shall,       will. 

Past. — Could,    might,    ought,     quoth,     should,    would. 

KEM. — We  have  seen  [see  Part  I.,  p.  26]— 

1.  That  the  Predicate  of  a  Sentence  must  have  at  least  one  Verb. 

2.  That  it  may  have  other  Words. 

3.  That  in  Predicates  formed  of  more  than  one  Word,  the  last 

Word  constitutes  the  Principal  Part  of  the  Predicate,  t.  e.t 
makes  the  Principal  Assertion. 

4.  That  the  Principal  Part  of  a  Predicate  may  be — 

A  Verb.— I  lave.— I  do  see. 

A  Participle. — I  am  loved. — I  have  seen. 

An  Adjective. — John  is  weary. — Velvet  feels  smooth. 

A  Noun. — We  are  friends. — He  is  a  scholar. 

A  Pronoun. — It  is  /. — Thine  is  the  kingdom. 

5.  That  the  Words  prefixed  to  the  Principal  Part  are  Auxiliaries, 

and  may  be  Verbs  only,  or  Verbs  and  Participles.    Hence, 

DEF.  123. — An  Auxiliary  Verb  is  a  Verb  that  is  prefixed 
to  another  Yerb  or  to  a  Participle,  to  distinguish  the 
Voice,  Mode,  or  Tense  of  the  Principal  Verb. 


Always  Auxiliaries. 

Present. — Can,         may,         must,         shall. 
Past. — Could,     might,     should. 

Sometimes  Principal  Verbs. 

Present. — Am,       be,       do,   T  have,       will. 
Past. was,    did,     had,        would. 

OBS. — These  Words,   when   used  as  Auxiliaries,    perform   peculiar 
offices,  thus, 

Be,  with  its  various  modifications,  is  used  before  a  Past  Participle 
to  indicate  the  Passive  Voice. 


122  ENGLISH    GRAMMAB PAKT   II. 

Can,  may,  must,  shall  (used  to  command),  and  will  (signifying 
volition),  indicate  the  Present  Tense  of  the  Potential  Mode. 

Could,  might,  should,  and  would,  are  the  signs  of  the  Past  Tense 
Potential. 

Do          is  used  in  the  Present  Tense,      Indicative-intensive  form. 

Did  "  "       Past  Tense,  "  "  " 

Had  "  "       Prior  Past  Tense,       " 

Have  "        Prior  Present  Tense,  Indicative. 

May  have    "  "       Prior  Present  Tense,  Potential. 

Might  have"  "       Prior  Past  Tense,  " 

Shall  "  "        Future,  Indicative  (First  Person). 

Will  '  *        Future  Indicative  (Second  or  Third  Person). 

NOTE. — The  Future  and  the  Prior  Future  Tenses  are  placed  in  the 
Indicative  Mode  in  conformity  to  the  general  custom  of  grammarians. 
A  strict  regard  to  uniformity  and  consistency  would  place  them  with 
their  kindred  forms  in  the  Potential  Mode,  For, 

The  * '  Indicative  Mode  is  that  form  of  the  Verb  used  to  indicate  or  tusert 
an  act,  being,  or  state."  Now  a  thing  future  may  be  predicted,  but' 
can  not  be  declared  or  asserted.  We  may  declare  a  purpose  or  make  a 
prediction.  So  may  we  declare  the  possibility  of  an  actr  or  the  obligation 
to  perform  an  act.  But  these  are  done  by  a  modification  of  the  Predi- 
cate, called  Potential  Mode. 

In  the  Sentence  ' '  T  shall  go, ' '  we  have  asserted  a  prediction  of  an  act. 

*  *          "I  may  go, "  we  have  asserted  a  probability  of  an  act. 

"  "I  can  go,"  we  have  asserted  a  possibility  of  an  act. 

*'  I  should  go,"  asserts  obligation  to  perform  an  act. 
"  I  might  go,"  asserts  liberty  to  perform  an  act. 
"  I  could    go,"  asserts  power  to  perform  an  act. 

Neither  of  the  above  assertions  declares  the  performance  of  an  act. 
They  assert  "probability,  power,  will,  or  obligation,"  but  no  actual  event. 

The  Potential  Present  and  Past  alike  assert  a  present  probability,  pre- 
diction, possibility,  etc.,  of  &  future  act  or  event. 

"  I  shall  go  if  I  choose," 

"I  may  go  if  I  will," 

"I  can  go  if  I  will," 

"  I  should  go  if  I  were  invited,"    *  a11  refer  to  a  future  act 

"  I  might  go  if  I  were  invited," 

"  I  could  go  if  I  were  invited," 


VERBS — CONJUGATION. 

EXERCISES. 
Showing  the  peculiar  uses  of  Auxiliary  Verbs. 


123 


PREDICATE. 


Auxiliaries. 

Principal. 

2 

3 

4                         5 

am 

have 

been 

was 

had 

been 

shall 
shall 

have 

be 
been 

-     singing. 

may 

be 

may 

have 

been 

might 

be 

might 

have 

been 

(2-) 


John 


is             ] 

has 

been 

was 

had 

been 

will 

be 

]         will 

have 

been 

may 

be 

may 

have 

been 

might 

be 

might 

have 

been 

loved. 


the  Pupil,  substitute  for  the  Word  "John"  the  following 
Subjects,  and  notice  what  changes  in  the  various  Auxiliary  Verbs  must 
consequently  be  made.  Thus, 

I        requires  (am — have — shall — shall  have.) 

Thou       "       (art — hast — hadst — wilt — mayst — mightst.) 

They        "       (are— have.) 

People     "       (are — have.) 

He  "        [no  chancfi.] 

Hence, 

OBS. — The  practical  object  of  the  following  Paradigms  is  to  teach  the 
Pupil  what  are  the  various  changes  in  the  form  of  the  Predicate  to 
correspond  to  the  Subject,  and  to  indicate  the  various  Modes,  Tenses, 
Persons,  and  Numbers. 


124:  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR — PART   II. 

Paradigm  of  the  Irregular  Verb  "  BE." 

PRINCIPAL   PARTS. 

-4m,         was,         being,         been. 

INDICATIVE    MODE. 
PRESENT  TENSE. 

Singular  Number.  Plural  Number, 

First  Person. ...     I  am,  We  are, 

Second   "         .J£houart'  (Ye  are, 

(  You  are,  [  You  are, 

Third     "     He  is.  They  are. 

PRIOR   PRESENT  TENSE. 

1.     I  have  been.  We  have  been, 

2  j  Thou  hast  been,  j  Ye  have  been, 

'  {  You  have  been,  |  You  have  been, 
3.     He"  has  been.  They  have  been. 

PAST  TENSE. 

1.     I  was,   .  We  were, 

2  j  Thou  wast,  j  Ye  were, 

'  {  You  was,*  (  You  were, 
3.     He  was.  They  were. 

PRIOR  PAST  TENSE. 

1.     I  had  been,  We  had  been, 

2  j  Thou  hadst  been,  j  Ye  had  been, 

'  (  You  had  been,  (  You  had  been, 
3.     He  had  been.  They  had  been. 

FUTURE  TENSE. 

1.     I  shall  be,  We  shall  be, 

o  j  Thou  wilt  be,  j  Ye  will  be, 

z>  |  You  will  be,  {  You  will  be, 
3.     He  will  be.  They  will  be. 

PRIOR  FUTURE  TENSE. 

1.     I  shall  have  been,  We  shall  have  been, 

2  j  Thou  wilt  have  been,  j  Ye 'will  have  been, 

'  "j  You  will  have  been,  (  You  will  have  been, 
3.     He  will  have  been.  They  will  have  been. 

POTENTIAL   MODE. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.     I  may  be,  We  may  be, 

o  j  Thou  mayst  be,  j  Ye  may  be, 

{  You  may  be,  |  You  may  be, 
3.     He  may  be.  They  may  be. 

*  Some  good  writers  use  the  Plural  form  of  the  Verb  (were)  in  addressing  one 
person. 


VERBS CONJUGATION. 


125 


PRIOR   PRESENT  TENSE, 


Singular. 

1.     I  may  have  been, 
2   (  Thou  mayst  have  been, 

'  (  You  may  have  been, 
3.     He  may  have  been. 


1. 
2 

' 
3. 


PAST  TENSE. 


I  might  be, 
>  Thou  mightst  be, 
[  You  might  be, 

He  might  be. 


-  Plural. 

We  may  have  been, 
Ye  may  have  been, 
You  may  have  been, 
They  may  have  been. 


We  might  be, 
Ye  might  be, 
£  You  might  be, 
They  might  be. 


PRIOR   PAST  TENSE. 


I  might  have  been, 
Thou  mightst  have  been, 
You  might  have  been, 
He  might  have  been. 


We  might  have  been, 
C  Ye  might  have  been, 
(  You  might  have  been 

They  might  have  been 


SUBJUNCTIVE    MODE. 


3. 


If  I  be, 
If  thou  be, 
If  you  be, 
If  he  be. 


PRESENT   TENSE. 


1.     If  I  were, 
2  (  If  thou  wert, 
(  If  you  were, 
3.     If  he  were. 


PAST   TENSE, 


If  we  be, 
C  If  ye  be, 
)  If  you  be, 

If  they  be. 


If  we  were, 
\  If  ye  were, 
[  If  you  were, 
'  If  they  were. 


IMPERATIVE   MODE. 
PRESENT  TENSE. 


n    (  Be  thou,  or 
)  Do  thou  be. 


C  Be  ye,     or  Do  ye  be. 
(  Be  you,  or  Do  you  be. 


INFINITIVE   MODE. 

PRESENT  TENSE To  be. 

PRIOR  PRESENT  TENSE To  have  been. 


PARTICIPLES. 

PRESENT. Bem</. 

PAST Eeen. 

PRIOR  PRESENT Having  been. 

11* 


126  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR — PART  IL 

FORMULAE  OF  REGULAR  VERBS. 

Transitive  Yerb — "  RECITE." 

ACTIVE  VOICE. 

The  Principal  Parts  of  this  Yerb  are — 

PRESENT  TENSE Recite, 

PAST  TENSE Recite<7. 

PRESENT  PARTICIPLE Heciting. 

PAST  PARTICIPLE Recited. 

INDICATIVE   MODE. 
PRESENT  TENSE Recite. 

Simple  Farm.  Progressive  Form. 

Singular. 

1.     I  recite,  I  am  recitw^r, 

«  C  Thou  recited,  (  Thou  art  reciting, 

£  You  recite,  (  You  are  reciting, 

3.     He  recites.  He  is  reciting. 

Plural. 

1.    We  recite,  We  are  reciting, 

o  (  Ye  recite,  (  Ye  are  reciting, 

\  You  recite,  \  You  are  reciting, 
3.     They  recite.  They  are  reciting, 

PRIOR  PRESENT  TENSE, 

Singular. 

1.     I  have  reciteef,  I  have  been  recitm^r, 

o  C  Thou  hast  recited,  C  Thou  hast  been  recitw^r, 

£  You  have  recited,  \  You  have  been  inciting, 

3.     He  has  recited.  He  has  been  reciting. 

Plural. 

1.     We  have  recited,  W«  have  been  reciting, 

2   C  Ye  have  recited,  j  Ye  have  been  reciting, 

(  You  have  recited,  (  You  have  been  reciting, 

3.     They  have  recited.  They  have  been  reciting. 


VERBS CONJUGATION. 


127 


PAST   TENSE. 

Singular. 

1. 

I  recited, 

I  was  reciting, 

(  Tuou  recitedstf 

«  C  Thou  wast  reciting, 

. 

3. 

£  You  recited, 
He  recited. 

\  You  was  or  were  reciting, 
He  was  reciting. 

Plural. 

1. 

We  recited, 

We  were  reciting, 

C  Ye  recited, 

C  Ye  were  reciting, 

.  ' 

(  You  recited, 

\  You  were  reciting, 

3. 

They  recited, 

They  were  reciting. 

PRIOR   PAST  TENSE. 

Singular. 

1.     I  had  recited, 

2   C  Thou  hadst  recited, 

'  \  You  had  recited, 
3.     He  had  recited. 


.Plural. 


1.     We  had  recited, 
2   (  Ye  had  recited, 

'  £  You  had  recited, 
3.     Thej"  had  recited. 


FUTURE  TENSE. 


1. 

2.: 


i. 

2.! 

I 

3. 


I  shall  recite, 
Thou  uilt  recite, 
You  will  recite, 
He  will  recite. 


We  shall  recite, 
Ye  will  recite, 
You  will  recite, 
They  will  recite. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


I  "had  been  reciting, 
(  Thou  hadst  been  reciting , 
(  ifou  had  been  reciting, 

He  had  been  reciting. 

We  had  been  reciting, 
Ye  had  been  reciting, 
You  had  been  reciting, 
They  had  been  reciting. 


I  shall  be  reciting, 
(  Thou  wilt  be  reciting, 
{  You  will  be  reciting, 

He  trill  le  reciting, 

We  shall  be  reciting, 
(  Ye  tritt  be  reciting, 
£  You  will  be  reciting, 

They  will  be  reciting. 


PRIOR   FUTURE  TENSE. 


Singular. 

1.     I  shall  have  recited, 
2   C  Thou  unit  have  recited, 

* 
3. 


You  wiM  have  recited, 
He  will  have  recited. 


Plural. 

1.     We  shall  have  recited, 
o   C  Ye  will  have  recited, 

"  (  You  will  have  recited, 
8.     They  will  have  recited. 


I  shall  have  been  reciting 
C  Thou  wilt  have  been  reciting, 
\  You  will  have  been  reciting, 

He  will  have  been  reciting. 


We  shall  have  been  reciting, 
\  Ye  unit  have  been  reciting, 
[  You  will  have  been  reciting, 

They  will  have  been  reciting. 


128 


ENGLISH    GKAMMAB PAKT   II. 


POTENTIAL    MODE. 


PRESENT    TENSE. 


1.     I  may  recite, 
2   (  Thou  mayst  recite, 
' 


Singular. 


3. 


You  may  recite, 
He  may  recite. 


1  .     We  may  recite, 

2  (  Ye  may  recite, 

'  (  You  may  recite, 
3.     They  may  recite. 


Plural. 


L 

3. 

1. 

2. 
3. 

1. 

2. 
3. 

1. 

2. 
3. 


PRIOR   PRESENT  1 

Singular. 

I  may  have  recited, 
Thou  mayst  have  recited, 
You  may  have  recited, 
He  may  have  recited. 

Plural. 

We  may  have  recited, 
Ye  may  have  recited, 
You  may  have  recited, 
They  may  have  recited, 

PAST  TENSE. 

Singular, 
I  might  recite, 
\  Thou  mightst  recite, 
>  You  might  recite, 
"  He  mig/it  recite. 


We  might  recite, 
\  Ye  might  recite, 
[  You  might  recite, 

They  might  recite. 


Plural. 


I  may  be  reciting, 
C  Thou  may  at  be  reciting, 
{  You  may  be  reciting, 

He  may  be  reciting. 

We  may  be  reciting, 
Ye  may  be  reciting, 
You  may  be  reciting, 
They  may  be  reciting. 


I  may  have  been  reciting, 
(  Thou  mayst  have  been  reciting, 
(  You  may  have  been  reciting, 

He  may  have  been  reciting. 

We  may  have  been  reciting, 
C  Ye  may  have  been  reciting. 
(  You  may  have  been  reciting, 

They  may  have  been  reciting. 


I  might  be  reciting, 
(  Thou  mightst  be  reciting, 
\  You  might  be  reciting, 

He  might  be  reciting. 

We  might  be  reciting, 
Ye  might  be  reciting, 
You  might  be  reciting, 
They  might  be  reciting. 


PRIOR   PAST   TENSE. 


Singular. 

1.     I  might  have  recited, 
o  (  Thou  mightst  have  recited, 

'  (  You  might  have  recited, 
3.     He  mig/it  have  recited. 

Plural. 

1.     We  might  have  recited, 
o   (  Ye  might  have  recited, 

'  (  You  might  have  recited, 
3.     They  might  have  recited. 


I  might  have  been  reciting, 
C  Thou  mightst  have  beenreciting, 
(  You  might  have  been  reciting, 

He  mig/it  have  been  reciting. 

We  might  have  been  reciting, 
$  Ye  might  have  been  recit//^. 
(  You  might  ha-ve  been  reciting, 

They  might  have  been  reciting. 


VERBS CONJUGATION. 


129 


SUBJUNCTIVE   MODE. 


1.  If 

3.     If 

1.  If 

2.  HJ 

3.  If 


I  recite, 
thou  recite, 
you  recite, 
he  recite. 


we  recite, 
ye  recite, 
you  recite, 
they  recite. 


PRESENT   TENSE. 

Singular. 


Plural. 


PAST  TENSE. 

Singular. 

Though  I  recited, 
Though  thou  recited, 
Though  you  recited, 
Though  he  recited. 

Plural. 

Though  we  recited, 
n   (  Though  ye  recited, 

'  \  Though  you  recited, 
3.     Though  they  recited. 


If  I  be  reciting, 
\  If  thou  be  reciting, 
[  If  you  be  reciting, 

If  he  be  reciting. 

If  we  be  reciting, 
\  If  ye  be  reciting, 
[_  If  you  be  reciting, 

If  they  be  reciting. 


Though  I  were  recitm^, 
C  Though  thou  wert  reciting, 
(  Though  you  were  reciting, 

Though  he  were  reciting. 

Though  we  were  reciting, 
C  Though  ye  were  reciting, 
(  Though  you  were  reciting, 

Though  they  were  reciting. 


IMPERATIVE   MODE. 
PRESENT  TENSE. 

Singular. 

C  Recite  thou,  or 
£  Do  thou  recite. 

Plural. 

C  Be  ye  reciting,  or 
\  Do  ye  be  reciting. 


2. 


o  C  Recite  ye  or  you,  or 
'  £  Do  ye  or  you  recite. 


C  Be  thou  recitm^r,  or 
\  Do  thou  be  reciting. 


INFINITIVE   MODE. 
PRESENT. 

To  recite.  To  be  reciting. 

PRIOR   PRESENT. 

To  have  recited.  To  have  been  reciting, 

PARTICIPLES. 
PRESENT. 

"Reciting. 

PRIOR   PRESENT. 


Having  recited. 


\ 


130 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR PART   II. 


Paradigm  of  the  Verb  "  LOVE." 

ACTIVE   VOICE.  PASSIVE  VOICE. 

INDICATIVE   MODE. 


PRESENT   TENSE. 


1. 


Hove, 
Thou  lovest, 
You  love, 
3.     He  loves. 


2 
' 


Singular. 


Plural. 


1.  We  love, 
Ye  love, 
You  love, 

3.  "  They  love. 


I  am  loved, 
(  Thou  art  loved, 
\  You  are  loved, 

He  is  loved. 


We  are  loved, 
C  Ye  are  loved, 
\  You  are  ioved, 

They  are  loved. 


PRIOR  PRESENT  TENSE. 


1.  I  have  loved, 
2  (  Thou  hast  loved, 
'  \  You  have  loved, 
3.  He  has  loved. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


1.  We  have  loved, 
2  C  Ye  have  loved, 

(  You  have  loved, 
3.  They  have  loved. 


I  have  been  loved, 
C  Thou  hast  been  loved, 
£  You  have  been  loved, 

He  has  been  loved. 


We  have  been  loved, 
C  Ye  have  been  loved, 
(  You  have  been  loved, 

They  have  been  loved. 


1,     I  loved, 

2  C  Thou  lovedst, 

'  \  You  loved, 
3.     He  loved. 


1.  We  loved, 
Ye  loved, 
You  loved, 

3.  "  They  loved. 


PAST  TENSE. 

Singular. 


Plural. 


I  was  loved, 
(  Thou  wast  loved, 
\  You  was  or  were  loved, 

He  was  loved. 


We  were  loved, 
C  Ye  were  loved, 
\  You  were  loved, 

They  were  loved. 


PRIOR   PAST  TENSE. 


Singular. 


1.     I  had  loved, 

2  (  Thou  hadst  loved, 

'  \  You  had  loved, 
3.     He  had  loved. 


I  had  been  loved, 
C  Thou  hadst  been  loved, 
(  You  had  been  loved, 

He  had  been  loved. 


TERBS CONJUGATION. 


131 


I.     We  had  loved, 
2  C  Ye  had  loved, 

£  You  had  loved, 
3.    They  had  loved. 


Plural. 


We  had  heen  loved, 
C  Ye  had  been  loved, 
I  You  had  been  loved, 

They  had  been  loved, 


FUTURE  TENSE. 


1.     I  shall  love, 


2. 
3, 


f  Thou  wilt  love, 

[  You  will  love, 

He  will  love. 


1.     We  shall  love, 
2  (  Ye  will  love, 

'  (  You  will  love, 
3.     They  will  love. 


Singular, 


Plural. 


I  shall  be  loved, 
C  Thou  wilt  be  loved, 
(  You  will  be  loved, 

He  will  be  loved. 


We  shall  be  loved, 
C  Ye  will  be  loved, 
\  You  will  be  loved, 

Thqy  will  be  loved. 


PRIOR  FUTURE  TENSE. 


Singular. 

1.     I  shall  have  loved, 
2  C  Thou  wilt  have  loyed, 

£  You  will  have  loved, 
3.     He  will  have  loved. 

Plural. 

1.     We  shall  have  loved, 
2  (  Ye  will  have  loved, 

'  {  You  will  have  loved, 
8.    They  will  have  loved. 


I  shall  have  been  loved, 
C  Thou  wilt  have  been  loved, 
\  You  will  have  been  loved, 

He  will  have  been  loved. 


We  shall  have  been  loved, 
C  Ye  will  have  been  loved, 
(  You  will  have  been  loved, 

They  will  have  been  loved, 


POTENTIAL   MODE. 


PRESENT  TENSE, 


1.     I  may  love, 

2  (  Thou  mayst  love, 

'  (  You  may  love, 
3.     He  may  love. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


1.     We  may  love, 
2  C  Ye  may  love, 

'  £  You  may  love, 
3.    They  may  lovt. 


I  may  be  loved, 
C  Thou  mayst  be  loved, 
£  You  may  be  loved, 

He  may  be  loved. 


We  may  be  loved, 
C  Ye  may  be  loved, 
(  You  may  be  loved, 

They  may  be  loved. 


132 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR  -  PART   II. 


PRIOR    PRESENT   TENSE. 


Singular. 

I  may  have  loved, 
(  Thou  mayst  have  loved,        £ 
(  You  may  have  loved,  \ 

He  may  have  loved. 


Plural. 


1.     "We  may  have  loved, 
2  (  Ye  may  have  loved, 
' 


2  ( 
'  ( 


You  may  have  loved, 
3.     They  may  have  loved. 


I  may  have  been  loved, 
Thou  mayst  have  been  loved, 
You  may  have  been  loved, 
He  may  have  been  loved. 

We  may  have  been  loved, 
C  Ye  may  have  been  loved, 
You  may  have  been  loved, 
They  may  have  been  loved. 


PAST  TENSE. 


1.     I  might  love, 

2  C  Thou  mightst  love, 

'  \  You  might  love, 
3.     He  might  love. 


Singular. 


We  might  love, 
Ye  might  love, 
You  might  love, 
They  might  love. 


I  might  be  loved, 
Thou  mightst  be  loved, 
You  might  be  loved, 
He  might  be  loved. 


Plural. 


We  might  be  loved, 
C  Ye  might  be  loved, 
\  You  might  be  loved, 

They  might  be  loved. 


PRIOR  PAST  TENSE. 

Singular. 

1.     I  might  have  loved,  I  might  have  been  loved, 

2  (  Thou  mightst  have  loved,    C  Thou  mightst  have  been  loved, 

'  \  You  might  have  loved,          (  You  might  have  been  loved, 
3.     He  might  have  loved.  He  might  have  been  loved. 

Plural. 

1.     We  might  have  loved, 
2  C  Ye  might  have  loved, 
' 


You  might  have  loved, 
3.     They  might  have  loved. 


We  might  have  been  loved, 
Ye  might  have  been  loved, 
You  might  have  been  loved, 
They  might  have  been  loved. 


SUBJUNCTIVE   MODE. 
PRESENT  TENSE. 


1.     If  I  love, 
o  C  If  thou  love, 
(  If  you  love, 
3.     If  he  love. 


Singular. 


If  I  be  loved, 
If  thou  be  loved, 
If  you  be  loved, 
If  he  be  loved. 


VERBS — CONJUGATION. 


Plural. 


133 


1.     If  we  love, 
2   \  If  ye  love, 
'  {  If  you  love, 
3.     If  they  love. 

If  we  be  loved, 
j  If  ye  be  loved, 
j  If  you  be  loved, 
If  they  be  loved. 

PAST  TENSE. 

1.     If  I  loved, 
2  j  If  thou  lo\  ed, 
'  {  If  you  loved, 
3.     If  he  loved. 

Singular. 
If  I  were  loved, 
{If  thou  wert  loved, 
If  you  were  loved, 
If  he  were  loved. 

Plural. 

1.     If  we  loved, 
2  j  If  ye  loved, 
*  {  If  you  loved, 
3.     If  they  loved. 

If  we  were  loved, 
ilf  ye  were  loved, 
If  you  were  loved, 
If  they  were  loved. 

IMPERATIVE   MODE. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 

n  j  Love  thou,  or 
'  (  Do  thou  love. 

Singular. 
j  Be  loved,  or 
1  Do  thou  be  loved. 

Plural 

2  j  Love  ye,  or 
'  (  Do  ye  love. 

{Be  ye  loved,  or 
Do  ye  be  loved. 

INFINITIVE    MODE. 
PRESENT   TENSE. 


To  love. 


To  be  loved. 


PRIOR   PRESENT   TENSE. 


To  have  loved. 


To  have  been  loved. 


PARTICIPLES. 
PRESENT. 

Loving.  Being  loved. 

PRIOR   PRESENT. 

Having  loved.  Having  been  loved* 

PAST. 

Loved. 
12 


134  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR — PART   H. 

Synopsis  of  the  Verb  "  STUDY." 

Active  Voice. 

INDICATIVE   MODE. 

First  Person. 

DECLARATIVE  FORM.         DECLARATIVE  FORM. — Negative. 

PRESENT I  study I  study  not,  or  I  do  not  study. 

PRIOR  PRESENT.  1  have  studied I  have  not  studied. 

PAST I  studied I  studied  not,  or  I  did  not  study. 

PRIOR  PAST I  had  studied I  had  not  studied. 

FUTURE I  shall  study I  shall  not  study. 

PRIOR  FUTURE.  .1  shall  have  studied.  .1  shall  not  have  studied. 

POTENTIAL   MODE. 

PRESENT I  may  study I  may  not  study. 

PRIOR  PRESENT. I  may  have  studied.  .1  may  not  have  studied. 

PAST I  might  study I  might  not  study. 

PRIOR  PAST.  . .  ."I  might  have  studied. .  I  might  not  have  studied. 

SUBJUNCTIVE   MODE. 

PRESENT If  I  study If  I  study  not. 

PAST If  I  studied If  I  studied  not. 

IMPERATIVE   MODE. 

Second  'Person. 

PRESENT Study,  or  )  ( Study  not,  or 

"       Do  thou  study,  )   "  "  ( Do  not  study. 


INFINITIVE   MODE. 

PRESENT To  study Not  to  study. 

PRIOR  PRESENT.  .To  have  studied Not  to  have  studied. 


PARTICIPLES. 

SIMPLE Studying Not  studying,  or  studying  not. 

COMPOUND Having  studied.  * . .  .Not  having  studied. 


VERBS — SYNOPSIS.  135 

Synopsis  of  the  Verb  "TuRN. 

Active  Voice. 
INDICATIVE   MODE. 
DECLARATIVE  FORM.  INTERROGATIVE  FORM. 

PRESENT I  turn Do  I  turn  ? 

PRIOR  PRESENT.  .  .1  have  turned Have  I  turned? 

PAST. I  turned Did  I  turn  ? 

PRIOR  PAST I  had  turned Had  I  turned? 

FUTURE I  shall  turn Shall  I  turn  ? 

PRIOR  FUTURE.  . .  .1  shall  have  turned Shall  I  have  turned  ? 

POTENTIAL   MODE. 

PRESENT I  may  turn May  I  turn  ? 

PRIOR  PRESENT  ...  I  may  have  turned  ....  May  I  have  turned  ? 

PAST I  might  turn Might  I  turn  ? 

PRIOR  PAST I  might  have  turned. .  .Might  I  have  turned? 


Synopsis  of  the  Verb  "  SELL." 

Passive  Voice. 

INDICATIVE   MODE. 

Third  Person. 

INTERROGATIVE  FORM.  INTERROGATIVE  FORU. — Negative. 

T Is  it  sold  ? Is  it  not  sold  ? 

PRIOR  PRESENT.  .  .Has  it  been  sold  ? Has  it  not  been  sold  ? 

PAST Was  it  sold  ? Was  it  not  sold  ? 

PRIOR  PAST Had  it  been  sold  ? Had  it  not  been  sold  ? 

FUTURE WiH  it  be  sold  ? Will  it  not  be  sold  ? 

PRIOR  FUTURE.  .  .Will  it  have  been  sold  ?.  .Will  it  not  have  been  sold  ? 

POTENTIAL   MODE. 
Third  Person. 

PRESENT May  it  be  sold  ? May  it  not  be  sold  ? 

PRIOR  PRESENT  .  .May  it  have  been  sold  ?.  .May  it  not  have  been  sold  ? 

PAST .Might  it  be  sold  ? Might  it  not  be  sold  ? 

PRIOR  PAST Might  it  have  been  sold?.  Might  it  not  have  been  sold? 

*  The  SUBJUNCTIVE,  IMPERATIVE,  and  INFIMTIVB  MODES  are  not  used  in  Inter- 
rogative Sentences. 


136  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR — PART  II. 

Paradigm  of  the  Irregular  Verb  u  SEE." 

DECLARATIVE  FORM.  INTERROGATIVE  FORM. 

INDICATIVE    MODE. 


1.    I  see, 
9  j  Thou  seest, 
*  |  You  see, 
3.     He  sees. 


1.     We  see, 
2    (  Ye  see, 

'  \  You  see, 
3.    They  see. 


PRESENT   TENSE. 

Singular. 


Plural. 


Seel? 

j  Seest  thou  ? 
J  See  you  ? 

Sees  he  ? 


See  we  ? 
j  See  ye  ? 
(  See  you  ? 

See  they  ? 


OBS  — The  above  is  the  Simple  form,  which,  in  Interrogative  Sentences, 
is  not  much  used,  the  Intensive  form  being  commonly  employed.    Thus, 


1.     I  do  see, 

2   j  Thou  dost  see, 

'  "j  You  do  see, 
3.     He  does  see. 


PRESENT   TENSE. 

Singular. 


1. 
2 
3.  They  do  see. 


We  do  see, 
j  Ye  do  see, 
'  "j  You  do  see, 


Plural. 


Do  I  see  ? 
[  Dost  thou  see 
J  Do  you  see  ? 

Does  he  see  ? 


Do  we  see  ? 
Do  ye  see  ? 
|  Do  you  see  ? 
Do  they  see  ? 


PRIOR   PRESENT  TENSE. 


1. 


T  have  seen, 
Thou  hast  seen, 


Singular. 


2  \ 
'  (  You  have  seen, 

3.     He  has  seen. 


1.     We  have  seen, 
2  j  Ye  have  seen, 


3. 


You  have  seen, 
They  have  seen. 


Plural. 


Have  I  seen  ? 
j  Hast  thou  seen  ? 
|  Have  you  seen  ? 

Has  he  seen  ? 


Have  we  Keen  f 
j  Have  ye  seen  ? 
{  Have  you  seen  ? 

Have  they  seen  ? 


IBKEGTJLAR   VERBS PARADIGM 


137 


TENSE. — Simple  Form. 


1.     I  saw, 

2  j  Thou  sawest, 

'  "j  You  saw, 
3.     He  saw. 


1.     We  saw, 
2  j  Ye  saw, 

'  {  You  saw, 
3.     They  saw. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Saw  I? 

j  Sawest  thou  ? 
{  Saw  you  ? 

Saw  he  ? 


Saw  we  ? 

j  Saw  ye  ? 
j  Saw  you  ? 
Saw  they  ? 


PAST  TENSE. — Intensive  Form. 


1.     I  did  see, 

2  j  Thou  didst  see, 

'  {  You  did  see, 
3.     He  did  see. 


1.  We  did  see, 
2  j  Ye  did  see, 
'  | 


3. 


You  did  see, 
They  did  see. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Did  I  see  ? 
j  Didst  thou  see  ? 
j  Did  you  see  ? 

Did  he  see  ? 


Did  we  see  ? 
j  Did  ye  see  ? 
\  Did  you  see  ? 

Did  they  see  ? 


PRIOR   PAST  TENSE. 


1.     I  had  seen, 


Singular. 


Had  T  seen  ? 


2  j  Thou  hadst  seen, 

i  Hadst  thou  seen  ? 

'  (  You  had  seen, 

Had  you  seen  ? 

3.     He  had  seen. 

Had  he  seen  ? 

Plural. 

1.     We  had  seen, 

Had  we  seen  ? 

2  j  Ye  had  seen, 
'  \  You  had  seen, 

(Had  ye  seen  ? 
Had  you  seen  ? 

3.     They  had  seen. 

Had  they  seen  ? 

POTENTIAL   MODE. 


PRESENT  TENSE. 

Singular. 

1 

T  can  see, 

Can  T  see  ? 

{Thou  canst  see, 

j  Canst  thou  see  ? 

. 

You  can  see, 

(  Can  you  sec  ? 

3. 

He  can  see. 

Can  he  see  ? 

12* 


138 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR PART    II. 


1.     We  can  see, 
n  j  Ye  can  see, 

'  (  You  can  see, 
3.     They  can  see. 


Plural 


Can  we  see  ? 

{Can  ye  see  ? 
Can  you  see  ? 
Can  they  see  ? 


PRIOR   PRESENT  TENSE. 


Singular. 


1.     I  can  have  seen, 

2  j  Thou  canst  have  seen, 


3. 


|  You  can  have  seen, 
He  can  have  seen. 


Plural. 

.    We  can  have  seen, 

j  Ye  can  have  seen, 

'  {  You  can  have  seen, 

.     They  can  have  seen. 


Can  I  have  seen  ? 

)  Canst  thou  have  seen 
Can  you  have  seen  ? 
Can  he  have  seen  ? 


Can  we  have  seen  ? 
j  Can  ye  have  seen  ? 
{  Can  you  have  seen  ? 

Can  they  have  seen  ? 


PAST  TENSE. 


1.     I  could  see, 

2  j  Thou  couldst  see, 

'  I  You  could  see, 
3.    He  could  see. 

1.     We  could  see, 
2  j  Ye  could  see, 

'  (  You  could  see, 
3.     They  could  see. 


Singular* 


Plural. 


Could  I  see  ? 

{  Couldst  thou  see  ? 
Could  you  see  ? 
Could  he  see  ? 


Could  we  see  ? 

{  Could  ye  see  ? 
Could  you  see  ? 
Could  they  see  ? 


PRIOR   PAST  TENSE. 


Singular. 

1.     I  could  have  seen, 
o  j  Thou  couldst  have  seen, 

(  You  could  have  seen, 
3.    He  could  have  seen. 

Plural. 

1.     We  could  have  seen, 
n  j  Ye  could  have  seen, 

(  You  could  Jiave  seen, 
3.-    They  could  have  seen. 


Could  I  have  seen  ? 
j  Couldst  thou  have  seen  ? 
(  Could  you  have  seen  ? 

Could  he  have  seen  ? 


Could  we  have  seen  ? 
j  Could  ye  have  seen  ? 
(  Could  you  have  seen  ? 

Could  they  have  seen  ? 


Let  the  Pupil  give  the  other  Modes  and  Tenses  of  this  Verb — refer- 
ring to  pp.  132-3  for  corresponding  declarative  forms. 


VERBS MODIFICATIONS.  139 

QUESTIONS   FOR   REVIEW. 

frAOE 

107.  What  is  a  Verb  ? See  Def.    97. 

How  are  Verbs  distinguished  ? 

What  is  a  Transitive  Verb? See  Def.    98. 

What  is  an  Intransitive  Verb  ? See  Def.    99. 

What  is  a  Neuter  Verb  ? See  Def.  100. 

108.  What  are  the  sub-classes  of  Transitive  Verbs  ? 

When  are  Verbs  in  the  Active  Voice  ? : See  Def.  101. 

When  are  Verbs  in  the  Passive  Voice  ? See  Def.  102. 

How  is  the  Passive  Voice  formed  ? See  Obs.  2. 

109.  What  gives  occasion  for  distinctions  of  Mode? See  Rem. 

Name  the  different  Modes. 

When  are  Verbs  in  the  Indicative  Mode  ? '. .  .See  Def.  103. 

110.  When  is  a  Verb  in  the  Potential  Mode  ?. ... See  Def.  104. 

When  is  a  Verb  in  the  Subjunctive  Mode  ? See  Def.  105. 

When  is  a  Verb  in  the  Imperative  Mode  ? See  Def.  106. 

111.  When  is  a  Verb  in  the  Infinitive  Mode  ? See  Def  107. 

What  is  a  Participle  ? See  Def.  108. 

112.  What  are  the  principal  distinctions  of  Participles  ? 

What  is  a  Simple  Participle? See  Def.  109. 

What  is  a  Compound  Participle  ? See  Def.  1 10. 

How  are  the  Simple  Participles  distinguished  ? 

What  is  the  Present  Participle  f See  Def.  111. 

113.  What  is  the  Past  Participle? ,  .See  Def.  112 

1 14.  What  various  offices  do  Participles  perform  ? See  Obs.  8. 

115.  What  is  Tense  ? — What  Names  are  given  to  the  Tenses  ? 

Define  the  Prior  Past  Tense,  and  give  Examples See  Def.  114. 

Define  the  Past  Tense,  "  "          See  Def.  115. 

116.  Define  the  Prior  Present  Tense,      "  "          See  Def.  116. 

Define  the  Present  Tense,  "  "          See  Def.  117. 

Define  the  Prior  Future  Tense,        "  "          See  Def.  118. 

Define  the  Future  Tense,  "  "          See  Def.  119. 

Give  the  various  Tenses  in  the  different  Modes . .  See  Recapitulation. 

120.  What  does  the  term  Conjugation  indicate  ? See  Rem. 

How  are  Verbs  distinguished,  in  Inflections  9 

What  is  a -%ttZar  Verb? See  Def.  120. 

What  is  an  Irregular  Verb  ? See  Def   121. 

121.  What  is  a  Defective  Verb? See  Def.  122. 

What  is  an  Auxiliary  Verb  ? See  Def.  123. 

Give  the  various  offices  of  the  Auxiliary  Verbs See  Obs.  1. 


• 

140  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR PART   II. 

EXERCISES. 

(I.) 

Let  the  Pupils  give  the  Class,  Voice,  Mode,  Tense,  Person,  and  Num- 
ber of  the  following  Verbs — and  complete  the  Sentences. 


1 . am  writing  a  letter. 

2. are  reading  poetry. 

3.' didst  see  the  eclipse. 

4. 'had  known  duty. 

5. may  feel  the  worm. 

6. ought  to  study. 

7. couldst  have  favored  him. 

8. — — thou  love  me. 


9. couldst  love  to  study. 

10. has  walked  to  Boston. 

1 1 . hast  wandered  from  home. 

12. shall  learn  wisdom. 

13. will  improve  in  writing. 

14. could  recite  lessons. 

15. canst  be  false  to  any  man. 

16. wish  to  see  home. 


17.  —  —wilt  have  returned  my  books. 

18.  -  shall  have  returned  from  Europe. 


Repeat  the  First 

Person  Singular  of  each  Mode  and  Tense  of  the  fol- 

lowing  Verbs  : 

Am, 

Eat, 

Neglect, 

Receive, 

Arise, 

Fly, 

Need, 

Reject, 

Begin, 

Go, 

Owe, 

Select, 

Blow, 

Hold, 

Ought, 

Squander, 

Come, 

Know, 

Practice, 

Yoke, 

Cut, 

Lay, 

Purchase, 

Touch, 

Do, 

Lie, 

Quiet, 

Use, 

Drink, 

Make, 

Qualify. 

Wish. 

Repeat  the  Third  Person  Plural  of  the  same. 

(m.) 

Let  the  appropriate  Auxiliary  Verbs  be  inserted  in  the  blank  spaces 
indicated. 

1.  "  Now  the  shades  of  night  '-^—  gone." 

2.  "  The  bell's  deep  tones  --  —  swelling." 

3.  "  The  palace  -  -  wrapped  in  flames." 

4.  "  How  —  —  my  heart  encrusted  with  the  world  !" 

5.  "  Everything  in  the  life  of  such  persons—  —  misplaced." 

6.  "  Science  -  raise  thee  to  eminence." 

7.  "  But  I  alone  -  guide  thee  to  felicity." 


IRREGULAR   VERBS.  14:1 

8.  "  Ten  years  I-— %llot  to  the  attainment  of  knowledge." 

9.  '  *  A  chieftain's  vengeance  thou/"       feel." 

10.   "  The  injuries  of  Fortune not  affect  the  mind." 

I 

(IV.) 

Let  two  Auxiliary  Verbs  be  inserted  in  the  following  Sentences  : 

1 .  John not  — —  gone  to  the  river. 

2.  We ''finished  our  task  at  five. 

3.  The  earth dissolved  like  snow. 

4  How we reconciled  ? 

5.  Who thought  it?     , 

6.  You fatigued. 

7.  He not frightened. 

8.  You brought  my  letters. 

9.  The  boy been  injured  by  it. 

10.  No  doctor made  that  man  well. 


IRREGULAR  VERBS. 

REM. — The  following  are  the  IRREGULAR  and  the  REDUNDANT  VERBS  of 
the  English  language.   • 


Present. 

Past.                         Present  Participl 

s.       Past  Participle. 

Abide, 

abode, 

abiding, 

abode  or  abided.  * 

Am  or  be. 

was, 

being, 

been. 

Arise, 

arose, 

arising, 

arisen. 

Awake, 

awoke  or  awaked, 

awaking, 

awoke  or  awaked 

Bear, 

bore  or  bare, 

bearing, 

born. 

Bear,  to) 
sustain,  \ 

bore  or  bare, 

bearing, 

borne, 

Beat, 

beat, 

beating, 

beaten  or  beat. 

Begin, 

began  or  begun, 

beginning, 

begun.            kl 

Behold, 

beheld, 

beholding, 

beheld. 

Belay, 

belayed  or  belaid, 

belaying, 

Delayed  or  belaid. 

Bend, 

bent  or  bended, 

bending, 

bent  or  bended. 

Bereave, 

bereft  or  bereaved, 

bereaving, 

bereft  or  bereaved. 

Beset, 

beset, 

besetting, 

beset. 

Beseech, 

besought  or  beseeched. 

,*  beseeching, 

besought  or  beseeched.* 

Bet, 

bet  or  batted, 

betting, 

bet  or  betted.* 

*  Obsolete  forms. 


142 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR PART   II. 


Present. 

Past.                       Present  Partici^ 

pie.     Past  Participle. 

Betide, 

betided  or  betid,* 

betiding, 

betided  or  betid. 

Bid, 

bade  or  bid, 

bidding, 

bidden  or  bid* 

Bind, 

bound, 

binding, 

bound. 

Bite, 

•bit, 

biting, 

bitten  or  bit. 

Bleed, 

bled, 

bleeding, 

bled. 

Blend, 

blended  or  blent, 

blending, 

blended  or  blent. 

Bless, 

blessed  or  blest, 

blessing, 

blessed  or  blest. 

Blow, 

blew  or  blowed, 

blowing, 

blowed  or  blown. 

Break, 

broke, 

breaking, 

broken. 

Breed, 

bred, 

breeding, 

breed. 

Bring, 

brought, 

bringing, 

brought. 

Build, 

built  or  builded,* 

building, 

built  or  builded.* 

Burn, 

burned  or  burnt, 

burning, 

burned  or  burnt. 

Burst, 

burst  or  bursted,* 

bursting, 

burst  or  bursted.* 

Buy, 

bought, 

buying, 

bought. 

Cast, 

cast, 

casting, 

cast. 

Catch, 

caught  or  catched,* 

catching, 

caught  or  catched.* 

Chide, 

chid, 

chiding, 

chidden  or  chid. 

Choose, 

chose, 

choosing, 

chosen. 

Cleave, 

clove  or  cleft, 

cleaving, 

cloven  or  cleft. 

Cleave, 

cleaved  or  clave, 

cleaving, 

cleaved. 

Cling, 

clung, 

clinging, 

clung. 

Clothe, 

clothed  or  clad, 

clothing, 

clothed  or  clad. 

Come, 

came, 

coming, 

come. 

Cost, 

cost, 

costing, 

cost. 

Creep, 

crept  or  creeped,* 

creeping, 

crept  or  creeped.* 

Crow, 

crowed  or  crew, 

crowing, 

crowed. 

Curse, 

cursed  or  curst,* 

cursing, 

cursed  or  curst.* 

Cut, 

cut, 

cutting, 

cut. 

Dare, 

dared  or  durst, 

daring, 

dared  or  durst. 

Deal, 

dealt  or  dealed,* 

dealing, 

dealt  or  dealed.* 

Big, 

dug  or  digged,* 

digging, 

dug  or  digged.* 

Dive, 

dived  or  dove, 

diving, 

dived  or  diven. 

Do, 

did, 

doing, 

done. 

Draw, 

drew, 

drawing, 

drawn. 

Dream, 

dreamed  or  dreamt, 

dreaming, 

dreamed  or  dreamt. 

Dress, 

dressed  or  drest, 

dressing, 

dressed  or  drest. 

Drink, 

drank, 

drinking, 

drunk  or  drank. 

Drive, 

drove, 

driving, 

driven. 

IRREGULAR    VERBS. 


143 


Present. 

Past. 

Present  Participle.       Past  Participle. 

Dwell, 

dwelt  or  dwelled,* 

dwelling, 

dwelt  or  dwelled.* 

Eat, 

ate  or  eat,* 

eating, 

eaten  or  eat.* 

Fall, 

fell, 

falling, 

fallen. 

Feed, 

fed, 

feeding, 

fed. 

Feel, 

felt, 

feeling, 

felt. 

Fight, 

fought, 

fighting, 

fought. 

Find, 

found, 

finding, 

found. 

Flee, 

fled, 

fleeing, 

fled. 

Fling, 

flung, 

flinging,    v 

flung. 

Fly, 

flew, 

flying, 

flown. 

Forbear, 

forbore, 

forbearing, 

forborne. 

Forget, 

forgot  or  forgat, 

forgetting, 

forgotten  or  forgot. 

Forsake, 

forsook, 

forsaking, 

forsaken. 

Freeze, 

froze  or  freezed,* 

freezing, 

frozen  or  freezed.* 

Geld, 

gelded  or  gelt,* 

gelding, 

gelded  or  gelt.* 

Get, 

got  or  gat,* 

getting, 

got  or  gotten.* 

Gild, 

gilded  or  gilt, 

gilding, 

gilded  or  gilt. 

Girt, 

girded  or  girt, 

girding, 

girded  or  girt. 

Give, 

gave, 

giving, 

given. 

Go, 

went, 

going, 

gone. 

Grave, 

graved, 

graving, 

graved  or  graven. 

Grind, 

ground, 

grinding, 

ground. 

Grow, 

grew, 

growing, 

grown. 

Hang, 

hung  or  hanged, 

hanging, 

hung  or  hanged. 

Have, 

had, 

having, 

had. 

Hear, 

heard, 

hearing, 

heard. 

Heave, 

heaved  or  hove,* 

heaving, 

heaved  or  hoven.  * 

Hew, 

hewed, 

hewing, 

hewed  or  hewn. 

Hide, 

hid, 

hiding, 

hidden  or  hid. 

Hit, 

hit, 

hitting, 

hit. 

Hold, 

held, 

holding, 

held  or  holden.* 

Hurt, 

hurt, 

hurting, 

hurt. 

Keep, 

kept, 

keeping, 

kept. 

Kneel, 

kneeled  or  knelt, 

kneeling, 

kneeled  or  knelt. 

Knit, 

knit  or  knitted, 

knitting, 

knit  or  knitted. 

Know, 

knew, 

knowing, 

known. 

Lade, 

laded, 

lading, 

laded  or  laden. 

Lay, 

laid  or  layed, 

laying, 

laid  or  layed.* 

Lead, 

led, 

leading, 

led. 

ENGLISH   GRAMMAR PAET   II. 


Present. 

Past.                     Present  Participle.       Past  Participle. 

Lean, 

leaned  or  leant, 

leaning, 

leaned  or  lent. 

Leap, 

leaped  or  leapt, 

leaping, 

leaped  or  leapt. 

Learn, 

learned  or  learnt, 

learning, 

learned  or  learnt. 

Leave, 

left, 

leaving, 

left. 

Lend, 

lent, 

lending, 

lent. 

Let, 

let, 

letting, 

let. 

Lie, 

lay? 

lying, 

lain. 

Light, 

lighted  or  lit, 

lighting, 

lighted  or  lit. 

Loose, 

lost, 

loosing, 

lost. 

Make, 

made, 

making, 

made. 

Mean, 

meant  or  meaned,* 

meaning, 

meant  or  meaned.* 

Meet, 

met, 

meeting, 

met. 

Mow, 

mowed, 

mowing, 

mowed  or  mown. 

Mulct, 

mulcted  or  mulct,* 

mulcting, 

mulcted  or  mulct.* 

Outdo, 

outdid, 

outdoing, 

outdone. 

Pass, 

passed  or  past, 

passing, 

passed  or  past. 

Pay, 

paid  or  payed,* 

paying, 

paid  or  payed.* 

Pen, 

penned  or  pent,* 

penning, 

penned  or  pent.* 

Plead, 

pled  or  pleaded, 

pleading, 

pled  or  pleaded. 

Prove, 

proved, 

proving, 

proved  or  proven. 

Put, 

put, 

putting, 

put. 

Quit, 

quitted  or  quit, 

quitting, 

quitted  or  quit. 

Rap, 

rapped  or  rapt,  . 

rapping, 

rapped  or  rapt. 

Read, 

read, 

reading, 

read. 

Rend, 

rent, 

rending, 

rent. 

Rid, 

rid, 

ridding, 

rid. 

Ride, 

rode, 

riding, 

rode  or  ridden. 

Ring, 

rung  or  rang, 

ringing, 

rung, 

Rise, 

rose, 

rising, 

risen. 

Rive, 

rived, 

riving, 

riven  or  rived. 

Roast, 

roasted  or  roast, 

roasting, 

roasted  or  roast. 

Rot, 

rotted, 

rotting, 

rotten  or  rotted. 

Run, 

ran  or  run, 

running, 

run. 

Saw, 

sawed, 

sawing, 

sawn  or  sawed. 

Say, 

said, 

saying, 

said. 

See, 

saw, 

seeing, 

seen. 

Seek, 

sought, 

seeking, 

sought. 

Sell, 

sold, 

selling, 

sold. 

Send, 

sent, 

sending, 

sent. 

IRREGULAR   VERBS. 


145 


Present. 

Past. 

Present  Participle.       Past  Participle. 

Set, 

set, 

setting, 

set. 

Shake, 

shook  or  shaked,* 

shaking, 

shaken  or  shaked.' 

Shape, 

shaped, 

shaping, 

shaped  or  shapen. 

Shave, 

shaved, 

shaving, 

shaved  or  shaven. 

Shear, 

sheared, 

shearing, 

sheared  or  shorn. 

Shed, 

shed, 

shedding, 

shed. 

Shine, 

shone  or  shined, 

shining, 

shined  or  shone. 

Show, 

showed, 

showing, 

showed  or  shown. 

Shoe, 

shod, 

shoeing, 

shod. 

Shoot, 

shot, 

shooting, 

shot. 

Shred, 

shred, 

shredding, 

shred. 

Shrink, 

shrunk, 

shrinking, 

shrunk. 

Shut, 

shut, 

shutting, 

shut. 

Sing, 

sung  or  sang, 

singing, 

sung. 

Sink, 

sunk  or  sank, 

sinking, 

sunk. 

Sit, 

sat, 

sitting, 

sat. 

Slay, 

slew, 

slaying, 

slain. 

Sleep, 

slept, 

sleeping, 

slept. 

Slide, 

slid, 

sliding, 

slidden  or  slid. 

Sling, 

slung, 

slinging, 

slung. 

Slink, 

slunk, 

slinking, 

slunk. 

Slit, 

slitted  or  slit, 

slitting, 

slitted  or  slit. 

Smell, 

smelled  or  smelt, 

smelling, 

smelled  or  smelt. 

Smite, 

smote, 

smiting, 

smitten  or  srnit. 

Sow, 

sowed, 

sowing, 

sowed  or  sown. 

Speak, 

spoke  or  spake, 

speaking, 

spoken. 

Speed, 

sped, 

speeding, 

sped. 

Spell, 

spelled  or  spelt, 

spelling, 

spelled  or  spelt. 

Spend, 

spent, 

spending, 

spent. 

Spill, 

spilled  or  spilt, 

spilling, 

spilled  or  spilt. 

Spin, 

spun, 

spinning, 

spun. 

Spit, 

spit  or  spat,* 

spitting, 

spit. 

Split, 

split, 

splitting, 

split. 

Spoil, 

spoiled  or  spoilt, 

spoiling, 

spoiled  or  spoilt. 

Spread, 

spread, 

spreading, 

spread. 

Spring, 

sprung  or  sprang, 

springing, 

sprung. 

Stand, 

stood, 

standing, 

stood. 

Stave, 

stove  or  staved, 

staving, 

stove  or  staved. 

Stay, 

staid  or  stayed,* 

staying, 

staid  or  stayed.* 

w 

146 


ESGLISII    GRAMMAS PAST   II. 


Present.             Past.                    Present  Participle.         Past  Participle. 

Steal, 

stole, 

stealing, 

stolen. 

Stick, 

stuck, 

sticking, 

stuck 

Sting, 

stung, 

stinging, 

stung. 

Stink, 

stunk  or  stank,* 

stinking, 

stunk. 

Stride, 

strode  or  strid, 

striding, 

stridden. 

Strike, 

struck, 

striking, 

struck  or  stricken.  1 

String, 

strung  or  stringed, 

stringing, 

strung  or  stringed. 

Strive, 

strove, 

striving, 

striven. 

Strow, 

strowed, 

strewing, 

strowed  or  strown. 

Swear, 

swore, 

swearing, 

sworn. 

Sweat, 

sweated  or  sweat, 

sweating, 

sweated  or  sweat. 

Sweep, 

swept, 

sweeping, 

swept. 

Swell, 

swelled, 

swelling, 

swelled  or  swollen. 

Swim, 

swam, 

swimming,    swam. 

Swing, 

swung, 

swinging, 

swung. 

Take, 

took, 

taking, 

taken. 

Teach, 

taught, 

teaching, 

taught 

Tear, 

tore, 

tearing, 

torn. 

Tell, 

told, 

telling, 

told. 

Think, 

thought, 

thinking, 

thought. 

Thrive, 

thrived  or  throve, 

thriving, 

thrived  or  thriven. 

Throw, 

threw  or  throwed, 

throwing, 

thrown  or  throwed. 

Thrust, 

thrust, 

thrusting, 

thrust. 

Tread, 

trod, 

treading, 

trodden  or  trod. 

Wake, 

waked  or  woke, 

waking, 

waked  or  woke. 

"Wax, 

waxed, 

waxing, 

waxed  or  waxen. 

Wear, 

wore, 

wearing, 

worn. 

Weave, 

wove, 

weaving, 

woven  or  wove. 

Wed, 

wedded  or  wed, 

wedding, 

wedded  or  wed. 

Weep, 

wept, 

weeping, 

wept. 

Wet, 

wet  or  wetted, 

wetting, 

wet  or  wetted. 

Whet, 

whetted  or  whet, 

whetting, 

whetted  or  whet. 

Win, 

won, 

winning, 

won. 

Wind, 

wound  or  winded,* 

winding, 

wound  or  winded. 

Work, 

worked  or  wrought, 

working, 

worked  or  wrought. 

Wring, 

wrung  or  wringed, 

wringing, 

wringed  or  wrung. 

Write, 

wrote, 

writing, 

written  or  writ. 

OBS. 

1.  —  Words  in  the  above 

list,  marked 

with  a  (*),  are  not  much 

used  by 

modern  writers. 

VERBS UNIPERSONAL.  1 4:7 

OBS.  2. — A  Verb  often  has  a  Preposition  or  other  prefix  placed  before 
it ;  the  conjugation,  however,  remains  the  same. 

EXAMPLES. 

Take took taken. 

Mistake mistook mistaken. 

Overtake overtook overtaken. 

Misunderstand. misunderstood misunderstood. 

REM. — The  class  should  repeat  this  list  in  concert — prefixing  to  each 
Yerb  one  of  the  Personal  Pronouns.  * \,T  the  Third  Person  a  Noun  may 
be  used— thus : 

I  write I  wrote I  have  written having  writte 

You  tread ....  you  trod you  have  trod having  trod. 

He  sweeps he  swept he  has  swept having  swept. 

John  does John  did John  has  done having  done. 

Men  sit men  sat men  have  sat having  sat. 

Some  hear some  heard. .  .some  have  heard. .  .having  heard. 

They  see they  saw they  are  seen being  seen. 

To  the  Transitive  Verbs,  Objects  may  be  attached— thus  : 

We  saw  wood we  sawed  wood we  have  sawn  wood. 

Birds  build  nests  . .  birds  built  nests birds  have  built  nests. 

John  writes  letters .  John  wrote  letters.  .John  will  write  letters. 
Thou  seest  me thou  sawest  me thou  wilt  see  me. 

Other  variations  in  these  concert  exercises  may  be  profitable — such 
as  placing  the  words  now,  to-day,  etc.,  after  the  Present — yesterday,  etc., 
after  the  Past  Tense— and  heretofore,  recently,  etc. ,  after  the  Prior  Present 
— thus : 

I  begin  to-day I  began  yesterday  .  .1  have  begun  recently. 

The  wind  blows  now. the  wind  blew  then,  the  wind  has  blown  often. 
The  bell  rings  of  ten .  .the  bell  rang  lately .  the  bell  will  ring  to-morrow. 
William  writes  now. .  William  wrote  then .  William  will  write  often. 

UNIPERSONAL   VERBS. 

DEF.  124. — A  Verb  used  only  as  the  Predicate  of  the 
Indefinite  Pronoun  " it"  is  called  a  Unipersonal  Verb. 

EXAMPLES. — It  snows.— It  rains. — It  seems. — It  becomes.— It  be- 
hooves.—It  is  evident. 

Methinks  is  an  anomalous  form  of  the  Verb  think. 


148  ENGLISft   GRAMMAR PART   II. 


EXERCISES    IX   REVIEW. 

REM.— Let  the  Pupil  give  the  Voice,  Mode,  Tense,  Person,  and  Number, 
of  the  Verbs  in  the  following  Sentences  : 

1 .  Science  strengthens  mind. 

2.  Do  you  see  the  large  ship  traversing  the  ocean  by  the  force  of 

the  wind  ? 

3.  William  has  visited  Europe. 

4.  Have  we  exercised  discretion  ? 

5.  I,  John,  saw  these  things. 

6.  Did  Washington  secure  renown  ? 

7.  Ye  had  accomplished  purposes. 

8.  I  shall  understand  you. 

9     Will  Warner  study  Greek  ? 

10.  Thou  wilt  not  comprehend  it. 

11.  Ye  will  have  accomplished  much. 

12.  We  may  receive  instruction. 

13.  Canst  thou  guide  Arcturus  ? 

14.  Shall  William  accompany  us  ? 

15.  I  will  study  Greek. 

16.  They  are  not  appreciated. 

17.  Could  it  not  be  accomplished  ? 

18.  Mary  might  have  been  misinformed. 

19.  Wisdom  should  be  honored. 

20.  Thou  canst  not  have  been  understood. 

21.  Sevastopol  could  not  have  been  taken. 

22.  Meteors  might  have  been  seen. 

23.  What  should  have  been  done  ? 

24.  Who  can  be  trusted  ? 

25.  Have  you  been  reading  poetry  ? 

26.  Cora  will  be  writing  letters. 

27.  Stephen  could  not  have  been  giving  attention. 

28.  Might  Clara  have  been  admitted  ? 

29.  Boys  had  been  reciting  lessons. 

30.  We  will  not  be  enslaved. 

31.  Pupils  might  not  have  been  giving  attention. 

32.  Caroline  will  have  visited  Syria. 

33.  Hear  me  for  my  cause. 

34    Be  silent,  that  ye  may  hear. 

35.  Bid  her  give  me  new  and  glorious  hopes. 


ADVERBS.  149 


ADVEKBS. 

REM. — As  actions  are  modified  by  circumstances,  and  as  qualities 
vary  in  degree,  so  words  expressing  actions,  and  words  denoting  quali- 
ties, are  modified  by  other  words,  denoting  time,  place,  degree,  manner, 
cause,  etc.  Hence, 

DEF.  125. — A  Word  used  to  modify  the  signification  of 
a  Verb,  an  Adjective,  or  another  Modifier,  is  called  an 
Adverb. 

OBS.  1.— Adverbs  may  consist  of  Words,  Phrases,  and  Sentences. 

1.  A  Word. — The  very  best  men  sometimes  commit  faults. 

2.  A  Phrase.  —"In  the  beginning,  God  created  the  heaven  and  the 

earth." 

3.  A  Sentence — "  They  kneeled  before  they  f ought" 

OBS  2. — Adverbial  Words  are  of  great  utility  in  rendering  the  lan- 
guage concise  and  spirited.  They  are  commonly  substituted  for  Phrases, 


"  Brilliantly" . . .  .for. . . . "  With  a  brilliant  appearance. 

"  Solemnly" for. ..."  In  a  solemn  manner." 

"Vainly" ,  .for "  In  a  vain  attempt." 

"  Here" .for. ..."  In  this  place." 

"  Now" for "At  this  time." 

1.  "  Brilliantly  the  glassy  waters  mirror  back  his  smiles." 

2.  "  Solemnly  he  took  the  earthly  state." 

3.  "  Vainly  we  offer  each  ample  oblation." 

4.  "  Here  sleeps  he  now." 

5.  "The  waves  are  white  below." 

The  waves  are  white  below  him. 

6.  "  Heat  me  these  irons  hot." 

Heat  for  me  these  irons  hot. 

7.  ''Willie  has  come  home— early." 

Willie  has  come  to  his  home — at  an  early  hour. 

BEM*—"  Below" — "me" — "home"  and  "early,"  are  substituted  for 
Adverbial  Phrases.     [See  Part  I.,  page  23.] 

OBS.  3. — Words  are  also  substituted  for  Adverbial  Sentences. 
13* 


150  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR — PART  II. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.   "While  there  we  visited  the  prison;"  for,  while  we 

were  at  Auburn,  we  visited  the  prison. 
2.   "  Then,  when  I  am  thy  captive,  talk  of  chains." 

OBS.  4.— An  Adverb  often  modifies  a  Phrase. 

ET.AMPLES.~L  We  went  almost  TO  BOSTON. 

2.  Wilkes  sailed  quite  AROUND  THE  WORLD. 

3   Engraved  expressly  FOR  THE  LADIES'  GARLAND. 

OBS.  5. — The  Words  which  Adverbs  properly  modify  are  sometimes 
understood. 

EXAMPLE.  —Thou  canst  but  add  one  bitter  woe 
To  those  [     ]  already  there. 

OBS.  6. — Adverbs  sometimes  take  the  place  of  Verbs,  which  they 
modify. 

EXAMPLES.— ' '  Off,  off,  I  bid  you. "     "  To  arms  f ' 

"  Back  to  thy  punishment,  false  fugitive  !" 

OBS.  7. — Words  generally  used  as  Adverbs  sometimes  take  the  place 
of  Nouns,  and  hence  become  Pronouns. 

EXAMPLES.— 1.  "  Till  then"— for,  till  that  time. 

2.  "  From  there'1 — for,  from  that  place. 

3.  "  And  I  have  made  a  pilgrimage  from  far."— Homer. 

4.  '  *  Oh,  let  the  ungentle  spirit  learn  from  hence 

A  small  unkindness  is  a  great  offense." 

OBS.  8. —Participles  become  Adverbs  when  they  indicate  the  manner 
of  an  action,  or  modify  a  quality. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  "  The  surging  billows  and  the  gamboling  storms 
Come,  crouching,  to  his  feet."     [P.  249,  Obs.  5.] 
2o  "  Now  it  mounts  the  wave, 

And  rises,  threatening,  to  the  frowning  sky." 

3.  "  "Pis  strange,  'tis  passing  strange." 

4.  "  A  virtuous  household,  but  exceeding  poor." 

OBS.  9. — A  few  words,  commonly  used  as  Prepositions,  are  sometimes 
used  Adverbially. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  "  Thou  didst  look  doivn  upon  the  naked  earth." 

2.  "  And  may  at  last  my  weary  age 

3.  Find  out  the  peaceful  hermitage." — Milton. 


ADVERBS — CLASSIFICATION.  151 

CLASSIFICATION    OF    ADVERBS. 

HEM. — The  classes  of  Adverbs  are  very  numerous.     The  following 
are  the  most  important : 

I.  OF  THE  FORMS  OF  ADVERBS. 
OBS.  10.  —Some  Words  are  used  almost  exclusively  as  Adverbs ;  such 

are  Primitive  Words. 

EXAMPLES. —Even— here— now— not— then— there. 

OBS  1 1  .—But  most  Words  used  as  Adverbs  are  Derivative  Words—  their 
Radicals  being  commonly  used  as  Nouns  or  as  Adjectives. 


1.  From  Nouns.— Always— nightty— hourly— aloft—  ashore. 

2.  From  Adjectives. — Brilliants/ — rightly — softly  — virtuous^/. 

OBS.  12.  —Many  Words,  commonly  used  as  Nouns,  Adjectives,  Prepo- 
sitions, etc  ,  become  Adverbs  by  representation  or  substitution. 

EXAMPLES.— 1.   "William  rises  early" —at  an  early  hour. 

2.  "  You  have  come  too  late'' — at  too  late  a  day 

3.  "  Warner  will  come  home" — to  his  home. 

4.  "  He  will  return  to-morrow" — on  the  morrow. 

5.  "  The  captain  had  gone  below" — below  deck. 

6.  "Is  the  agent  within  f" — within  the  house. 

[See  page  23,  Obs.  2.] 

II.  OF  THE  FUNCTIONS  OF  ADVERBS. 

Adverbs    are    commonly    divided    into    two    primary 
classes : 

1.  Adverbs  of  Manner,  and 

2.  Adverbs  of  Circumstance. 

DBF.  126. — Adverbs  of  Manner  are  those  which  ask  or 
answer  the  question,  How  f 

OBS.  1. — Adverbs  of  Manner  are  such  as  indicate — 

1.  Affirmation  —Ay— certainly — doubtless— surely— verily,  etc. 

2  Doubt.-  Perchance — perhaps— possibly,  etc. 

3.  Mode.  —  Aloud— asunder— how— so— together — thus,  etc. 

4.  Negation.—  Nay— not. 


152  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR PART   II. 

OBS.  2. — Phrases  and  Sentences  often  indicate  the  manner  of  an  act. 

EXAMPLES. 

Phrases. — 1.   "  God  moves  in  a  mysterious  way" 

2.  "  Silence  now 

I  brooding  like  a  gentle  spirit  o'er 
The  still  and  pulseless  world/' 

3.  "Omar  had  passed  seventy-five  years  in  Jwnor  and 

prosperity. 
Sentences. — 4.   "  He  died  as  he  lived — a  devotee  of  mammon.' 

5.   "  There  are  departed  beings  that  I  have  loved  as  I 
never  again  shall  love  in  this  world. ' ' 

DEF.  127. — Adverbs  of  Circumstance  are  such  as  ask  or 
answer  the  questions,  When  ?  Where  ?  Whether  f 
Whence  f  How  much  ?  Why  f — indicating  Time,  JPlacey 
Degree,  Cause. 

I.  OF  TIME. 

HEM. — All  Words  used  to  ask  or  to  answer  the  questions,  "  When  ?''  or 
"  How  often  ?"  are  properly  called  Adverbs  of  Time. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  Present. — Instantly— now — presently— yet,  etc. 

2.  Past.  — Already — heretofore — hitherto — lately — yes- 

terday, etc. 

3.  Future. — Henceforth — hereafter — soon,  etc. 

4.  Absolute, — Always — ever — never,  etc. 

5.  Repeated. — Continually — often, —  rarely — sometimes, 

etc. 

Ous.  1.— Phrases  and  Sentences  also  perform  the  office  of  Adverbs  of 
Time. 

EXAMPLES. 
Phrases.  — 1 .   ' '  In  the  beginning,  God  created  the  heaven  and  the  earth. ' ' 

2.  "The  Christmas  rose  is  in  bloom  during  the  month  of 

January. 

3.  "  At  midnight,  in  his  guarded  tent, 

The  Turk  was  dreaming. ' ' 
Sentences. — 4.   "And  as  Jesus  passed  by,  he  saw  a  man  who  was  blind.*' 

5.  "I  think  of  the  friends  who  had  roamed  with  me  there, 

When  the  sky  was  so  blue,  and  the  flowers  were  so  fdir" 

6.  **  Ye  that  keep  watch  in  heaven,  as  earth,  asleep, 

Unconscious  lies,  effuse  your  mildest  beams." 


ADVERBS — MODIFICATION.  153 

II.  OF  PLACE. 

OBS.  2. — All  Words  used  to  ask  or  to  answer  the  questions,  Where? 
Whither  ?  or  Whence  ?  are  classed  as  Adverbs  of  Place. 
EXAMPLES. — 1.  In  a  Place. — Here — there — where?  etc. 

2.  To  a  Place.—  Hither— thither  -whither?  etc. 

3.  From  a  Place. — Hence — thence —whence  ?  etc. 
OBS.  3. — Most  Adverbs  of  Place  are  in  the  form  of  Phrases. 

f  in  the  cars, 
I  from  Rochester, 
EXAMPLES. — Mary  went  i  through  New  York, 

to  Norfolk, 
[via  Baltimore. 

And  many  in  the  form  of  Sentences. 

EXAMPLE. — "  Where  wealth  and  freedom  reign,  contentment  fails." 
OBS.  4. — Words  which  ask  or  answer  the  questions,  How  much  ?    How 
far  ?     To  what  extent  ? — are  classed  as  Adverbs  of  Degree. 

EXAMPLES. — Altogether — hardly — little — much — quite — merely — so 
— too— very,  etc. 

OBS.  5.  Words  used  to  ask  or  to  answer  the  questions,    Why  ? 
Wherefore  ?  etc. ,  are  classed  as  Adverbs  of  Cause.  ^ 

EXAMPLES. — Accordingly — consequently — hence — therefore — where- 
fore, etc. 

"  Let  others  brave  the  flood  in  quest  of  gain." 

OBS.  6. — Adverbs  used  to  ask  questions  are  called  Interrogative  Adverbs. 
EXAMPLES. — Where  have  you  been? — How  can  we  escape? 

MODIFICATION. 

Some  Adverbs  are  modified,  like  Adjectives,  by  com- 
parison. 

EXAMPLES. 

Pos.  Comp.  Superl. 

1.  By  use  of  Suffixes Soon Sooner Soonest 

2.  "      "     Auxiliary  Adverbs  . .  Wisely  . . .  More  wisely. . .  Most  wisely. 

EXEBCISES. 

^^*  Let  the  following  Adverbs  be  classified  and  their  Modification 
given  : 

How,  Already,  In  a  moment, 

Not,  Quickly,  In  flower, 

There,  Vilely,  O'er  the  rums, 

Soon,  Eagerly,  At  pile. 


154:  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR PART   II. 

#£l*°  Let  the  Adverbial  Words,  Phrases,  and  Sentences,  in  the  follow- 
ing Examples,  be  pointed  eut  and  parsed  after  the  following 


1.   "  E'en  now,  where  Alpine  solitudes  asCend, 
I  sit  me  down,  a  pensive  h6ar  to  spend ; 
And  placed  on  high,  above  the  storm's  career, 
Look  downward,  where  a  hundred  realms  appear." 

Now Modifies  "  sit" — denoting  time;  hence,  an  Adverb. 

itudes  ascend0  ."  )  Modines  "  sit"— denoting  place;  hence,  an  Adverb. 
Down Modifies  "sit" — denoting  place  ;  hence,  an  Adverb. 

A  pensive  hour  to  7  Modifieg  «  sit»_ denoting  cause;  hence,  an  Adverb, 
spend j 

On  high Modifies  "placed" — denoting  place  ;  hence  an  Adv. 

AbcareerheSt°rm'S^ModifieS  "Placed"—  denoting^;  hence  an  Adv. 
Downward Modifies  "  look" — denoting  place  ;  hence,  an  Adv. 

Where  a  hundred  >  Modifies  « look"—  denoting  place;  hence,  an  Adv. 
realms  appear  .  ) 

•  2.  "Earth  keeps  me  here 

Awhile  ;  yet  I  shall  leave  it,  and  shall  rise 
n  fairer  ivinas  than  thine,  to  skies  more  clear." 

Here Modifies  "keeps" — denoting  place;  hence,  Ad  verb  of  Place. 

Awhile Modifies  "  keeps"— denoting  time;  hence,  Adverb  of  Time. 

On  wings. .  .Modifies  "rise" — denoting  means;  hence,  Adverb  of  Means. 
("On  fairer  wings  than  thine,"  is  the  Modified  Adverb.) 

Than  thine . Modifies  "  fairer'-' — denoting  degree ;  hence,  Adverb  of  De- 
gree. 

To  skies Modifies  "rise" — denoting  place  ;  hence,  Adverb  of  Place. 

("To  skies  more  clear,"  is  the  Modified  Adverb.) 

More Modifies  "clear" — denoting  degree;  hence,  Adverb  of  De- 
gree. 

3.   '•'•How  much  better  satisfied  he  is  !" 

How Modifies  "much  ;"  hence,  an  Adverb. 

Much Modifies  "  better  ;"  hence,  an  Adverb. 

Better Modifies  "  satisfied  ;"  hence,  an  Adverb. 

OBS.  1. — Let  it  be  remembered  that  the  term  ' '  Adverbs' '  is  applied  to 
a  distinct  element  in  the  structure  of  Sentences — that  the  function  of 
that  element  may  be  performed  by  a  single  Word  or  by  a  combination 


ADVERBS — EXERCISES.  155 

of  Words,  constituting  a  Phrase  or  a  Sentence.  In  analyzing  Sentences 
containing  these  three  distinct  forms  of  the  Adverbial  Element,  we  pro- 
ceed according  to  the  MODELS  given  above.  But, 

OBS.  2. — The  Wards  composing  an  Adverbial  Phrase  or  Sentence  have 
also  their  distinct  individual  offices.  Thus,  the  Adverbial  Phrase, 
"  Above  the  storm's  career,"  consists  of  a  Preposition,  (above) — an  Ad- 
jective, (the) — an  Adjective,  (storm's) — a  Noun,  (career). 

So  also  the  Adverbial  Sentence,  "  Where  a  hundred  realms  appear," 
consists  of  a  Conjunction,  (where) — an  Adjective,  (a)— an  Adjective,  (hun- 
dred)— a  Noun,  (realms) — and  a  Verb,  (appear).  Hence, 

OBS.  3. — In  Proximate  Analysis,  it  is  sufficient  to  discuss  the  Elements 
of  Principal  Sentences  ;  while,  in  Ultimate  Analysis,  each  separate  Word 
composing  an  Element,  is  to  be  parsed  separately 

ADDITIONAL  EXAMPLES 

of  Adverbial  Words,  Phrases,  and  Sentences. 

4.  * '  Noiselessly  around, 

From  perch  to  perch,  the  solitary  bird 


5.  ' '  How  is  it  possible  not  to  feel  a  profound  sense  of  the  responsible- 

ness  of  this  Republic  to  all  future  ages." 

6.  "  In  a  moment  he  flew  quickly  past.11 

7.  "  For  there  the  shield  of  the  mighty  is  vilely  cast  away." 

8.  * '  Thy  pencil  glows  in  every  flower  ;' ' 

9.  "  Where  Sense  can  reach,  or  Fancy  rove, 

From  hill  to  field,  from  field  to  grove, 
Across  the  wave,  around  the  sky, 
There's  not  a  spot,  nor  deep,  nor  high, 
Where  the  Creator  has  not  trod, 
And  left  the  footsteps  of  a  God." 

* '  Eternal  Hope !  when  yonder  spheres  sublime 
Pealed  their  first  notes  to  sound  the  march  of  Time, 

10.  Thy  joyous  youth  began — but  not  to  fade, 
When  all  the  sister  planets  have  decayed  : 

When,  wrapt  in  fire,  the  realms  of  ether  glow, 
And  Heaven's  last  thunder  shakes  the  world  below, 

11.  Thou,  undismayed,  shalt  o'er  the  ruins  smile, 
And  light  thy  torch  at  Nature's  funeral  pile !" 


156  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR PART   II. 


DEF.  128. — A  Word  used  to  introduce  a  Phrase,  show- 
ing the  relation  of  its  Object  to  the  Word  which  the 
Phrase  qualifies,  is 

A  Preposition. 

LIST. 

A * '  Wild  winds  and  mad  waves  drive  the  vessel  a  wreck. ' ' 

About. , "  We  walked  about  town." 

Above "  There  is  a  ferry  above  the  falls/* 

Across "  Across  the  ocean  came  a  pilgrim  bark." 

Aboard "  They  came  aboard  ship." 

Aboard  of "  We  succeeded  in  getting  aboard  of  her. " 

After "He  that  cometh  after  me,  is  preferred  before  me." 

Against "He  that  is  not  for  me,  is  against  me. ' ' 

Along "  Winds  run  along  the  summits  of  their  hills." 

Amid "  We  stowed  them  amid-ships." 

Amidst "  Amidst  the  mists,  he  thrusts  his  fists." 

Among "  He  became  a  great  favorite  among  the  boys." 

Amongst "  We  made  diligent  search  amongst  the  rubbish." 

Around "  The  chill  dews  of  evening  were  falling  around  me." 

As  "He  gives  this  as  the  latest  news." 

Aslant "It  struck  aslant  the  beam." 

Astride "  He  sat  astride  the  beam." 

As  for "  As  for  me  and  my  house,  we  will  serve  the  Lord." 

As  to "  As  to  that,  I  have  nothing  to  say." 

At "He  was  at  work  at  noon. ' ' 

Athwart "  The  dolphin  leaped  athwart  her  bows/' 

Before "  He  stood  before  the  people." 

Behind "  She  stood  behind  a  rick  of  barley." 

Below "  The  captain  was  below  decks." 

Beneath ' '  Beneath  the  moldering  ruins  the  brave  boy  sleeps." 

Beside "  Beside  its  embers,  red  and  clear,  he  stood." 

Besides "There  was  a  famine  in  the  land,  besides  the  first 

famine." 

Between "  Between  whom,  perfect  friendship  has  existed." 

Betwixt "  There  is  no  difference  betwixt  them." 

Beyond "  Beyond  all  doubt,  he  is  the  man. ' ' 

But "  All  went  but  me. ' ' 


PREPOSITIONS — LIST.    <TION  159 

But  for "  And  but  for  these  vile  guns,  he  woulu^  Independent 

By "To  sail  by  Ephesus." — "They  stood  by  the 

Concerning "  Concerning  whom  I  have  before  written. "  .  ,  ,, 

Despite  of "  He  will  rise  to  fame,  despite  of  all  opposition." 

Devoid  of "  You  live  devoid  of  peace." 

During "  This  has  occurred  many  times  during  the  year." 

Ere  "  Ere  another  evening's  close,  he  had  gone." 

Except "  All  were  invited  except  me." 

Excepting "  Excepting  that  bad  habit,  the  teacher  was  faultless." 

For "  For  me  your  tributary  stores  combine." 

From "  Playful  children,  just  let  loose  from  school." 

From  among  .  ..."  From  among  thousand  celestial  ardors." 
From  between. . ,  "  He  came  from  between  the  lakes  " 

From  off "  This  lady-fly  I  take  from  off  the  grass. ' ' 

In "  In  the  beginning." 

Instead  of "  Instead  of  the  thorn  shall  come  up  the  fir." 

In  lieu  of "  She  has  that  sum  in  lieu  of  dower." 

Into "  Into  these  glassy  eyes  put  light." 

Like "  An  hour  like  this  may  well  display  the  emptiness  of 

human  grandeur." 

Near "  His  residence  is  near  the  church." 

Next "  Plural   nominatives   should   be   placed  next  their 

verbs." 

Nigh "  Come  Dot  nigh  me." 

Notwithstanding.  "  Notwithstanding  this,  we  remain  friends." 

Of "Of  the  arts  of  peace  ' ' 

Off "  He  fell  off  the  bows." 

On "  On  a  bed  of  green  sea-flowers. ' ' 

Opposite "  Our  friend  lives  opposite  the  Exchange." 

Over "  High  o'er  their  heads  the  weapons  swung." 

Out  of "  Out  of  the  cooling  brine  to  leap." 

Past "  We  came  past  Avon." 

Per "  Twelve  hundred  dollars  per  annum." 

Previous  to "  Previous  to  this,  his  character  has  been  good." 

Inspecting "  Nothing  was  known  respecting  him." 

Round "  He  went  round  the  parish,  making  complaints." 

Since "  Since  Saturday  he  has  not  been  seen." 

Rave "  All,  save  this  little  nook  of  land." 

Saving "With   habits  commendable,  saving  only   this— he 

chews  tobacco." 

Through "Walk  through  the  maple  grove." 

Throughout .,..."  Nor  once,  throughout  that  dismal  night." 

u 


158  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR — PAST  II. 

Than "  Than  whom  none  higher  sat." 

Till "He  labored  hard  till  noon." 

To "We  purpose  to  go  to  Rochester  to-day." 

Touching "  Touching  these  things,  whereof  I  am  accused." 

Towards "  They  returned  towards  evening." 

Under "  Then  they  went  under  the  cloud." 

Underneath "And  underneath  his  feet,  he  cast  the  darkness." 

Unlike "  Unlike  all  that  I  had  ever  before  seen. ' ' 

U  ii  til "We  shall  not  return  until  Saturday." 

Unto "  Unto  him  who  rules  the  invisible  armies  of  eternity." 

Up "  The  whole  fleet  was  sailing  up  the  river." 

Upon "He  stood  upon  the  highest  peak." 

Via "This  stage  is  for  Buffalo,  via  Batavia." 

With "  With  cautious  steps  and  slow." 

Within "  Peace  be  within  these  walls." 

Without "  Without  it,  what  is  man  ?" 

Worth "He  possessed  an  estate,  worth  five  thousand  pounds." 

OBS.  1. — The  antecedent  term  of  relation — the  word  which  the 
Phrase,  introduced  by  a  Preposition,  qualifies,  may  be 
A  Noun. — The  house  of  God. 

A  Pronoun. —  Who  of  us  shall  go  ? — I  care  not  which  of  you. 
An  Adjective. — It  is  good  for  nothing. 
A  Verb, — We  love  to  study. — We  delight  in  improvement. 
A  Participle. — Jumping  from  a  precipice. 
An  Adverb. — He  is  too  wise  to  err." 

OBS.  2.— The  antecedent  term  of  the  relation  expressed  by  a  Prepo- 
sition, is  sometimes  understood. 

EXAMPLES. — 1 .  "0  refuge 

Meet  for  fainting  pilgrims  [    ]  on  this  desert  way." 

NOTE. — In  the  above  and  similar  examples,  the  ellipsis  of  the  ante- 
cedent word  need  not  be  supplied  in  parsing,  unless  the  sense  plainly  re- 
quires it.  But  the  Phrase  may  be  parsed  as  qualifying  the  word  which 
its  Antecedent  would  qualify,  if  expressed. 

2.   "  Which  flung  its  purple  oer  his  path  to  heaven.' 

Here  the  Phrase  ' '  to  heaven' '  properly  modifies  leading,  or  a  word  of 
similar  office,  understood.  But  "leading."  modified  by  this  Phrase, 
would  qualify  "path."  Hence  the  Phrase,  "to  heaven" — as  a 
representative  of  the  whole  Phrase  * '  leading  to  heaven" — may  be  attached 
to  "path." 


PREPOSITIONS CLASSIFICATION  1 59 

OBS.  3. — Prepositions  introducing  Substantive  and  Independent 
Phrases,  have  no  Antecedents. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.   "  As  for  me  and  my  house,  we  will  serve  the  Lord  " 

2.  "  And,  ow  the  whole,  the  sight  was  very  painful." — 

Todd. 

3.  "0  for  a  lodge  in  some  vast  wilderness." — Cowper. 

OBS.  4. — The  Consequent  term  of  relation  may  be, 
A  Word. — "  He  stood  before  the  people." 
A  Phrase. — "Time,  spent  in  receiving  impertinent  visits." 
A  Sentence. — "And  cries  of  '  Live  for  ever,'  struck  the  skies. " 

OBS.  5. — The  Consequent  term  of  relation — Object — is  sometimes 
understood. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  "  And  the  waves  are  white  below  [    ]." 

2.   "  These  crowd  around  [    ]  to  ask  him  of  his  health." 

Many  grammarians  call  these  Prepositions  Adverbs,  without  giving  a 
proper  explanation.  They  are  Prepositions,  having  their  Objects  under- 
stood. But,  as  the  Phrases  of  which  they  form  parts  are  always  used 
Adverbially,  the  Prepositions — as  representatives  of  their  Phrases — are 
Adverbs.  Hence,  when  thus  used,  each  Preposition  performs  a  double 
office— Prepositional,  as  leader  of  the  Phrase — Adverbial,  as  representa- 
tive of  the  Phrase. 

OBS.  6. — The  Preposition  is  often  understood — generally . when  its 
Phrase  follows  Verbs  of  giving,  selling,  coming,  etc. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  Mary  gave  [    ]  me  a  rose — Mary  give  a  rose  to  me. 

2.  I  sold  [      ]  Mr.  Shepard  my  wheat — sold  wheat  to 

Shepard. 

3.  William  has  gone  from  home  to-day — he  will  come  [    ] 

home  to-morrow." 

4.  These  crowd  around. — Mary  gave  me  a  rose. 

"  Me' '  and  "  around' '  are — in  the  same  sense,  and  by  the  same  rule — 
Adverbs,  viz.  :  as  representatives  of  the  Adverbial  Phrases  to  which  they 
severally  belong.  As  words,  simply  "me"  is  a  Pronoun — Object  of  to, 
understood :  ' '  around' '  is  a  Preposition — showing  a  relation  of  ' '  crowd' ' 
and  him,  understood. 

OBS.  7. — Prepositions  are  sometimes  incorporated  with  their  Objects. 
EXAMPLES, — I  go  a-fisking. — He  fell  a-slcep. — Come  a-board. 

OBS.  8. — Words  commonly  used  as  Prepositions  are  sometimes  used 
in  predication  with  Verbs. 


160    •  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR — PART   II. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  Its  idle  hours  are  o'er. 

2.  That  was  npt  thought  of. 

OBS.  9 — A  Preposition  commonly  indicates  the  office  of  the  Phrase 
which  it  introduces. 

In,  on,  under,  above,  etc  ,  indicate  a  relation  of  place,  including  the  idea 
of  rest. 

( in  the  hall, 
EXAMPLES. — William's  hat  is  Ion  the  stool, 

(  under  the  table. 

From,  to,  into,  through,,  out  of,  etc  ,  indicate  a  relation  of  place,  with  the 
idea  of  motion. 

(  from  New  York, 
EXAMPLES. — We  came  <to  Boston, 

v  through  Springfield. 

Of,  generally  indicates  a  relation  of  possession. 

EXAMPLE. — "The  lay  of  the  last  minstrel" — the  last  minstrel's  lay. 

As,  like,  tJian,  etc.,  indicate  a  relation  of  comparison. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  "  It  is  not  fit  for  such  as  us 

To  sit  with  rulers  of  the  land."  —  W.  Scott. 

2.  "  All  great,  learned  men,  like  me, 

Once  learned  to  read  their  A,  B,  C." 

3.  "Than  whom,  earth  holds  no  better  man." 

During,  till,  since,  etc. ,  indicate  a  relation  of  time. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.   "We  have  vacation  during  the  whole  month  of  July." 
2.   * '  Since  Saturday,  we  have  not  seen  him. ' ' 

But,  as  the  kind  of  relation  expressed  by  a  given  Preposition  is  not 
uniform,  no  perfect  classification  can  be  made. 

_^*-For  other  observations  on  Prepositions,  see  PART  III. — Prepo- 
sitions. 

EXERCISES. 

1.  Where  streams  of  earthly  joy  exhaustless  rise. 

Of . . .  Shows  a  relation  of  ' '  streams'  'and  "joy."    Hence,  a  Preposition. 

2.  "0  refuge, 

Meet  for  fainting  pilgrims." 

For . .  Shows  a  relation  of  *  *  meet' '  and  * '  pilgrims. ' '  Hence,  a  Preposition. 


PREPOSITIONS  -  EXERCISES.  161 

3.  "On  the  plains, 

And  spangled  fields,  and  in  the  mazy  vales, 
The  living  throngs  of  earth  before  Him  fall, 
With  thankful  hymns,  receiving  from  His  hands 
Immortal  life  and  gladness." 
On  .....  Shows  a  relation   of   [existing  understood,   which  qualifies] 

"  throngs"  and  "  plains  and  fields."    Hence,  a  Preposition. 
In  ......  Shows  a  relation   of   [existing  understood,    which   qualifies] 

"  throngs''  and  "vales."     Hence,  a  Preposition. 
Of  .....  Shows  a  relation  of  "  throngs"  and  "  earth."    Hence,  a  Prepo- 

sition. 

Before.  .Shows  a  relation  of  "fall"  ami  "  him."    Hence,  a  Preposition.. 
With...  Shows  a  relation   of   [worshiping,   or  some  equivalent   word 
understood,  which   qualifies]    "throngs"   and    "hymns." 
Hence,  a  Preposition. 


the  Pupils  point  out  the  Prepositions,  with  their  several 
Antecedents  and  Objects,  in  the  following 

ADDITIONAL    EXAMPLES. 

4.  "The  chief  FAULT  of  Coleridge  LIES  in  the  style,  which  has  been 
justly  objected  to,  on  account  of  its  obscurity,  general  turgidness  of 
diction,  and  a  profusion  of  new-coined  double  epithets." 

5.  "  Southey,  among  all  our  living  poets,  stands  aloof,  and  '  alone  in 
his  glory  ;'  for  he  alone  of  them  all  has  adventured  to  illustrate,  in 
poems  of  magnitude,  the  different  characters,  easterns,  and  manners 
of  nations. 

6.  To  h?m,  who,  in  the  love  of  nature,  holds 
Communion  with  her  visible  forms,  SHE  SPEAKS 
A  various  LANGUAGE  : 

7.  For  his  gayer  hours 

SHE  HAS  a  VOICE  of  gladness,  and  a  SMILE 
And  ELOQUENCE  of  beauty  ; 

8.  And  she  glides 

Into  his  darker  musings,  with  a  mild 
And  gentle  sympathy,  that  steals  away 
Their  sharpness,  ere  he  is  aware. 
14* 


162 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR PART   II. 


CONJUNCTIONS. 

REM. — It  should  be  remembered  that  Prepositions  connect  words  by 
showing  a  relation. 

We  have  another  class  of  Words,  used  simply  to  connect  "Words  and 
Phrases  similar  in  construction,  and  to  introduce  Sentences.  Hence, 

DEF.  129. — A  Word  used  to  join  Words,  Phrases,  and  Sen- 
tences, or  to  introduce  a  Sentence,  is  called  a  Conjunction. 

EXAMPLE  — Mary  and  Anna  have  perfect  lessons  because  they  study 
diligently. 

REM.  1. — In  this  example,  "  and"  connects  "Mary"  and  "Anna" — 
two  words  having  the  same  construction— and  "because"  introduces 
an  Auxiliary  Sentence. 


The  following  are  the  principal  Words  which  are  commonly  used  as 
Conjunctions  : 

After,*  Either,  Likewise,  Than,* 

Again,  Else,  Moreover,  That, 

Also,  Except,*  Nay,  Then,* 

Although,*  For,*  Neither.  Therefore, 

And,  Further,  Nor,  Though,* 

As,*  Furthermore,  Now,  Thui, 

As  well  as,*  Howbeit,  Notwithstanding,*     Unless,* 

Because,*  However,*  Or,  When,* 

Before,*  Howsoever,*  Otherwise,  Wherefore, 

Being,*  If,*  Provided,*  While,*    ' 

Besides,  Inasmuch  as,*  Since,*  Whilst, 

Both,  In  case,*  So,  Yet. 

But,  Lest,*  Still, 

REM.  2. — A  few  other  words  are  sometimes  used  as  Conjunctions. 

REM.  3. — The  words  in  the  above  List,  marked  thus  (*),  commonly 
introduce  Auxiliary  Sentences. 

OBS  1. — Conjunctions  used  to  introduce  Auxiliary  Sentences,  and 
some  others,  constitute  also  an  index  or  type  of  the  office  of  the  Sen- 
tences which  they  introduce. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  "  If  he  repent,  forgive  him." 

2.  "As  you  journey,  sweetly  sing." 


CONJUNCTIONS.  163 

In  these  examples.  '•  if  '  renders  its  Sentence  conditional—*1  as"  indi- 
cates that  its  Sentence  ('*  you  journey  ')  modifies  4t  sing  in  respect  to 
time. 

NOTE. —  When  «.s.  since,  and  many  other  Conjunctions  used  to  intro- 
duce Auxiliary  Sentences,  are  called,  by  some  grammarians,  Conjunctive 
Adverbs.  "And  the  rest  will  I  set  in  order  when  1  come  We  are  told 
that  "when,"  in  the  above  example,  is  an  Adverb  of  Time,  relating  to 
the  two  Verbs,  ' '  will  set'  and  *  come.  ' 

We  are  also  told  (and  properly)  that  Adverbs  of  time  are  those  which 
answer  to  the  question  "  when  ?'* 

But  does  *•  when,"  in  the  above  example,  "answer  to  the  question 
when  ?  '  Certainly  not  Then  it  can  not  be  an  Adverb  of  Time  But 
the  Auxiliary  Sentence,  •'  when  I  come,"  does  answer  to  the  question 
"  when.''  It  tells  when  *  I  will  set  the  rest  in  order.  '  Hence  the 
Sentence,  "when  I  come,'  is  an  Adverb  of  Time;  and  the  Word 
"when" — used  only  to  introduce  that  Sentence — connecting  it  to 
"  will  set/'  is  a  Conjunction.  [See  the  preceding  observation ] 

OBS  2.— A  Word  used  chiefly  to  introduce  a  Sentence  is  therefore  a 
Conjunction.  If  the  Sentence  introduced  by  it  is  Auxiliary  Adverbial 
in  office,  it  may  properly  be  called  an  Adverbial  Conjunction. 

Let  the  Pupil  remember  that  it  is  the  Sentence  that  is  Adverbial— not 
the  Word  used  to  introduce  the  Sentence. 

OBS.  3. — The  Conjunction  nor  generally  performs  a  secondary  office — 
that  of  a  negative  Adverb 

EXAMPLE. — "  Man  wants  but  little  here  below, 
Nor  wants  that  little  long." 

In  this  example  "nor"  introduces  the  Sentence,  and  also  gives  it  a 
negative  signification. 

The  Conjunction  "  lest"  has  sometimes  a  similar  construction. 
EXAMPLE.—"  Love  not  sleep,  lest  thou  come  to  poverty." 

OBS.  4.— DOUBLE  CONJUNCTIONS. — Two  Conjunctions  are  sometimes 
used  to  introduce  the  same  Sentence. 

EXAMPLES.— 1.  "  It  seems  as  if  they  were  instructed  by  some  secret 

instinct. ' ' 
2.   "  And  yet,  fair  bow,  no  fabling  dreams." 

As  though,  but  that,  and  some  other  words,  are  often  used  as  Double 
Conjunctions. 


164:  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR — PART  II. 

OBS.  5. — But,  when  an  Auxiliary  Sentence  precedes  a  Principal  Sen- 
tence, the  Conjunctions  introducing  them  are  not  to  be  regarded  as 
double,  although  they  may  be  in  juxtaposition.  [See  this  Obs.] 

OBS.  6. — In  addition  to  those  Words  properly  called  Conjunctions,  we 
have  other  words  used  to  introduce  Sentences — as  a  secondary  office 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  "  The  grave,  that  never  spoke  before, 

Hath  found  at  length,  a  tongue  to  chide." 
2.  "  We  are  watchers  of  a  beacon, 
Whose  light  must  never  die." 

HEM.  1. — "That  never  spake  before,"  is  an  Auxiliary  Sentence  intro- 
duced by  the  word  '  *  that.' ' 

The  principal  office  of  "  that"  is  Substantive— i\iQ  Subject  of  "spoke." 
Its  secondary  office  is  Conjunctive— introduces  its  Sentence  and  connects 
it  with  its  Principal. 

HEM.  2. — In  Example  2,  the  Word  "whose"  has  a  Principal  office — 
Adjunct  of  "light" — and  a  secondary  office — introduces  its  Sentence  and 
connects  it  with  its  Principal. 

)   [For  other  observations,  the  student  is  referred  to  PART  III.,  CON- 
JUNCTIONS.] 

EXERCISES. 

1 '  God  created  the  heaven-  and  the  earth. ' ' 

"  And"  .  .  .Connects  "  heaven"  and  "earth."     Hence,  a  Conjunction. 
' '  Temperance  and  frugality  promote  health  and  secure  happiness. ' ' 

"  And"  ...  Connects  "temperance"  and  "frugality."     Hence,  a  Con- 
junction. 
"  And"  . .  .Connects  "promote"  and  "  secure."    Hence,  a  Conjunction. 

1 '  And  the  eyes  of  the  sleepers  waxed  deadly  and  chill. ' ' 

"  And"  . .  .Introduces  a  Sentence.     Hence,  a  Conjunction. 

"  And"  .  .  .Connects  "  deadly"  and  "  chill."     Hence,  a  Conjunction 

'  *  And  hoary  peaks  that  proudly  prop  the  skies, 
Thy  dwellings  are. ' ' 

"  And"  . .  .Introduces  a  Sentence.     Hence,  a  Conjunction. 
"That". .  .Is  the  Subject  of  ';  prop."     Hence,  a  Substantive. 

It    also    introduces    its    Sentence,   and    connects  it   with 


EXCLAMATION.  165 

"  My  heart  is  aiced  within  me  when  I  think 
Of  the  great  miracle  that  still  goes  on 
In  silence  round  me. ' ' 

"  When"  .  .Introduces  the  Auxiliary  Sentence.    Hence,  a  Conjunction. 
"  Its  Sentence  is  Adverbial  in  its  office.    Hence,  an  Adverbial 

Conjunction. 

"  When"  is  not  an  Element — i.  e.,  it  bears  no  part  in  the 
structure  of  its  Sentence.     It  is  neither  a  Principal  Part, 
nor  an  Adjunct ;  it  primarilij  connects  :  secondarily,  indi- 
cates the  office  of  its  Sentence.     [See  Obs.  1,  above.] 
"  That" . .  .Is  the  Subject  of  "  goes."     Hence,  a  Substantive. 

As  a  secondary  office,  ' '  that' '  introduces  its  Sentence,  and 
connects  it  with  "miracle." 


EXCLAMATION. 

DEF.  130. — A  word  used  to  express  a  sudden  or  intense 
emotion,  is 

An  Exclamation. 

OBS.  1. — Exclamations  may  consist — 

1.  Of  Letters—as,  0  !    Oh  !    Ah  !    Lo  ! 

2.  Of  Words — commonly  used  as  Nouns,  Adjectives,  Verbs,  and 

Adverbs— as,    Wo  !      Strange  I      Hark  !     Really  !     Behold  I 
Shocking  ! 

3.  Of  Phrases—  For  shame  ! 

4.  Of  Sentences—"  0,  Ephraim  !    How  can  I  give  thee  vp  /" 

OBS.  2. — Exclamations  are  followed  by 

Words — "O,  Liberty!" — "Ah,  the  treasure!" 
Phrases — "  0,  for  a  lodge  in  some  vast  wilderness !" 
Sentences — "  0,  bear  me  to  some  solitary  cell !" 

HEM. — The  term  Exclamation  is  preferred  to  Interjection,  as  being 
more  appropriate  to  its  office. 

Exclaim — "  to  cry  out."    This  we  do  with  the  use  of  Exclamations. 

Interject — "to  cast  between."  We  very  seldom  cast  these  words 
between  others — they  are  generally  placed  before  other  words. 


166  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR — PART  II. 


WOKDS   OF  EUPHONY. 

DBF.  131.  —  A  Word  used  chiefly  for  the  sake  of 
sound,  or  to  change  the  position,  accent,  or  emphasis  of 
other  Words  in  a  Sentence,  is 

A  Word  of  Euphony. 

EXAMPLES.  —  1.   "  I  think  there  is  a  knot  of  you, 

Beneath  that  hollow  tree." 

"  There"  is  used  to  allow  the  Predicate  "is"  to  precede  its  Subject, 
"  knot."  In  this  Sentence  it  is  not  used  Adverbially. 

2.  "I  sit  me  down  a  pensive  hour  to  spend." 
"  Me"  is  used  to  throw  the  accent  on  the  word  "  down." 

3.  "These  were  thy  charms,  sweet  village!  sports  like 

these, 

With  sweet  succession,  taught  e'en  toil  to  please." 
n"  is  used  to  make  "  toil"  emphatic. 


OBS.  1.  —  Words  of  Euphony  are  such  as  commonly  belong  to  some 
other  "part  of  speech."  But  they  are  properly  called  Words  of 
Euphony  when  they  do  not  perform  their  usual  grammatical  offices. 
They  are,  then,  in  their  offices  chiefly  Rhetorical  —  being  used, 

(1.)  To  render  other  Words  emphatic. 

EXAMPLES.  —  1.   "  Even  in  their  ashes  live  their  wonted  fires." 
2.   "  The  moon  herself  is  lost  in  heaven." 

(2.)  To  change  the  position  of  the  parts  of  a  Sentence. 

EXAMPLES.  —  3.  "  There  are  no  idlers  here." 

4.  "  Now,  then,  we  are  prepared  to  take  up  the  main 
question." 

(3.)  To  preserve  the  rhythm  in  a  line  of  poetry. 

EXAMPLES.  —  5.   "  I  sit  me  down  a  pensive  hour  to  spend." 
6.  "  His  teeth  they  chatter,  chatter  still." 

HEM.  1.  —  It  is  quite  idle  to  call  —  as  most  grammarians  do—  the  Word 
even,  in  Example  1,  an  Adverb,  modifying  "  live  ;"  for  its  sole  office  is 
to  render  the  Phrase  "  in  their  ashes"  emphatic.  Such  office  is  Rhetorical 
—not  Grammatical. 


VARIABLE   OFFICES   OF   WORDS. 


167 


REM.  2. — To  call  the  word  "there,"  in  Example  3,  an  "Adverb  of 
Place,"  is  manifestly  absurd  ;  since  the  Verb  "are"  is  modified  by  the 
Adverb  ' '  here, ' '  and  hence  can  not,  at  the  same  time,  be  modified  by 
a  Word  of  directly  the  opposite  signification. 

REM.  3. — The  same  remark  is  also  applicable  to  the  word  "then," 
in  Example  4. 

OBS.  2. — Words  are  often  transposed,  lengthened,  shortened,  and  in  other 
ways  changed  for  the  sake  of  sound.  [See  "  Euphony,"  in  Part  III.] 


WORDS  VARYING  IN  THEIR  ETYMOLOGY. 


REM.  1. — Words  are  similar  in  Orthoepy  when  they  are  pronounced 
with  the  same  sound  of  the  same  letter. 

EXAMPLES. — There,  their — all,  awl — ant,  aunt. 

REM.  2. — They  are  similar  in  Orthography  when  they  are  formed  by 
the  same  letters,  similarly  arranged. 

EXAMPLES. — Read,  read — ex'tract,  extract' — wind,  wind. 

REM.  3. — They  are  similar  in  Etymology  when  they  perform  a  similar 
office  in  the  construction  of  a  Phrase  or  of  a  Sentence. 

REM.  4. — But  it  is  plain  that  words  similar  in  Orthoepy  differ  in  their 
Orthography — and  words  of  similar  Orthography  perform  widely  dif- 
ferent offices  in  different  connections. 

^S9*  It  should  always  be  remembered  by  the  pupil  that  the  OFFICE  of  a  word 
— not  its  shape — determines  its  Etymology. 

OBS. — Among  the  Words  of  similar  Orthography  that  differ  in  their 
Etymology  are  the  following  : 

A Adj Webster  wrote  a  Dictionary. 

A Prep Wild  winds  and  mad  waves  drive  the  vessel  a  wreck. 

Above. .  ..Prep He  stands  above  us. 

Above. . . .  Adv By  the  terms  above  specified. 

After  . . .  .Prep He  that  comcth  after  me  is  preferred  before  me. 

After Conj He  came  after  you  left. 

After  . . .  .Adj He  was  in  the  after  part  of  the  ship. 


168  ENGLISH    GEAMMAE PART   II. 

As Prep To  redeem  such  a  rebel  as  me. —  Wesley. 

As Conj Just  as  the  twig  is  bent  the  tree's  inclined. 

As Adv. . . .  .Nature,  as  far  as  art  can  do  it,  should  be  imitated. 

As Pron Such  as  I  have  give  I  unto  thee. 

Before. . .  .Prep He  stood  before  the  people. 

Before. . .  .Conj They  kneeled  before  they  fought.  > 

Both  ....  Adj Situated  on  lotji  sides  of  the  river. 

Both  ....  Pron Lepidus  flatters  both — of  both  is  flattered. 

Both  . . .  .Conj And  now  he  is  loth  loved  and  respected. 

But Prep All  but  me  were  rewarded. 

But Conj I  go — but  I  return. 

But Adv If  we  go,  we  can  but  die. 

But Verb I  can  not  but  rejoice  at  his  unexpected  prosperity. 

Ere Prep And  ere  another  evening's  close. 

Ere Conj And  ere  we  could  arrive  [it]  the  point  proposed. 

For Prep They  traveled  for  pleasure. 

For Conj He  can  not  be  a  scholar,  for  he  will  not  study. 

Like Prep . . .  t .  Nature  all  blooming  like  thee. 

Like Adj Like  causes  produce  like  effects. 

Like Verb We  like  whatever  gives  us  pleasure. 

Like Noun. . .  .We  shall  never  see  the  like  again. 

Near  . . .  .Adj At  the  near  approach  of  the  star  of  day. 

Near  ....  Prep We  live  near  the  springs. 

Near Adv Books  were  never  near  so  numerous. 

Near  . . .  .Verb We  shall  near  the  light-house. 

Neither . .  Adj He  can  debate  on  neither  side  of  the  question. 

Neither.  .Pron We  saw  neither  of  them. 

Neither.  .Conj The  boy  could  neither  read  nor  write. 

Next Adj The  next  generation. 

Next Prep Adjectives  should  be  piaced  next  their  substantives. 

Off Adj The  off  ox  should  keep  the  furrow. 

Off Prep William  fell -of  the  load. 

Only Adj ....     Love  and  love  only  is  the  loan  for  love. 

Only Adv Only  observe  what  a  swarm  is  running  after  her. 

Opposite.  Adj On  the  opposite  bank  of  the  river. 

Opposite .  Prep We  stood  opposite  the  Exchange. 

Past Adj A  past  transaction. 

Past Prep It  was  past  mid-day. 

Bound. .  .Adj Like  the  round  ocean. 

Round. .  .Prep Flung  round  the  bier. 

Still Adj Still  waters  reflect  a  milder  light. 

Still Adv Still  struggling,  he. tries  to  stand. 


VARIABLE   OFFICES   OF   WORDS.  169 

Still Conj StUlj  the  reflection  has  troubled  me. 

Still Noun The  loafer  lounges  about  the  still. 

Since. . .  .Prep Since  yesterday,  we  have  taken  nothing. 

Since. . .  .Conj Since  I  can  not  go,  I  will  be  contented  here. 

So Adj Solomon  was  wise — we  are  not  so. 

So Adv So  calm,  so  bright. 

So Conj "I'll  say  thee  nay,  so  thou  wilt  woo. 

Than Conj She  is  more  nice  than  wise. 

Than Prep. , Than  whom,  Satan  except,  none  higher  sat. 

Than. . . . Pron We  have  more  than  heart  can  wish. 

That Adj. That  book  is  mine. 

That Rel.  Pron. .."Him  that  cometh  unto  me,  I  will  in  no  wise 

cast  out." 

That Pron.  Adj. .  .Forgive  me  my  foul  murder  ?  that  can  not  be. 

That Conj I  am  glad  that  he  has  lived  thus  long. 

Then. . .  .Adv Then,  when  I  am  thy  captive,  talk  of  chains. 

Then Conj Then,  I'll  look  up. 

Then Pron Till  then. 

Till Prep They  labored  hard  till  night. 

Till Conj Till  I  come,  give  attention  to  reading. 

Till Noun He  kept  his  money  in  the  till. 

Until Prep From  morn,  even  until  night. 

Until . . .  .Conj Until  the  day  dawn. 

What  . . .  Adj At  what  hour  did  you  arrive  ? 

What  . . .  Eel.  Pron. . ,  What  Reason  weaves,  by  Passion  is  undone. 
What  . .  .Inter.  Pron.  What  does  it  avail? 

What . . .  Exclam What !   is  thy  servant  a  dog  ? 

Within . .  Prep To  inscribe  a  circle  within  a  circle. 

Within . .  Adj Received    on    the    within    bond,    five    hundred 

dollars. 

OBSERVATIONS    ON   SOME    OF   THE  FOREGOING   WORDS. 

As When  this  Word  introduces  a  Sentence,  it  is  properly  called  a 

Conjunction. 
EXAMPLE. — "As  ye  journey,  sweetly  sing." 

When  it  introduces  a  Phrase,  it  is  a  Preposition,  and  is  then 

generally  equivalent  to  the  Preposition  for. 
EXAMPLES. — 1.  "He  gave  me  this  as  the  latest  news  from  the  army." 

2.  "I  am  always  fearful  lest  I  should  tell  you  that  for 

news  with  which  you  are  well  acquainted." 

3.  ' '  His  friends  were  counted  as  his  enemies. " — Sigoumey. 

4.  "  All  mark  thee  for  a  prey." — Cowper. 


170  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR — PART  II. 

The  above  examples  clearly  indicate  that  as  is  sometimes  a  Prepo- 
sition. 

HEM. — Many  grammarians  insist  that  as,  in  the  above  and  similar 
examples,  "must  be  a  Conjunction,  because,  in  most  cases,  it  connects 


The  same  is  often  true  of  other  Prepositions. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  In  the  city  of  New  York. 

2.  " thy  shadowy  hand  was  seen 

Writing  thy  name  of  Death. ' '  — Pollock. 

We  do  not  claim  that  these  examples  contain  words  precisely  in 
apposition — as  much  so,  however,  as  any  words  claimed  to  be  connected 
by  as. 

As  is  often  used  (by  ellipsis  of  one  or  more  words)  as  a  Pronoun- 
[See  REM.  on  than  below.] 

1.  BUT. — This  word,  like  most  Conjunctions,   is  derived  from  a 
Baxon  Verb  signifying   "  except" — "  set  aside" — "  fail,"   etc.      [See 
Webster's  Improved  Grammar.'] 

In  the  list  above  given,  the  Word  retains  its  original  signification 
and  office. 

EXAMPLE.—  u  I  can  not  but  rejoice." 
Equivalent.  — I  can  not  fail — omit  to  rejoice. 

2.  BUT  is  also  used  instead  of  the  words,  if  it  were  not,  or  were  it  not. 

EXAMPLE.—"  And  but  for  these  vile  guns,  he  would  himself  have  been 
a  soldier." 

8.  BUT  sometimes  supplies  the  places  of  a  Relative  Pronoun  and  a 
Negative  Adverb. 

EXAMPLE. — "  I  scarce  can  meet  a  monument  but  holds  my  younger." 

Equivalent. — I  scarce  can  meet  a  monument  that  holds  not  my 
younger. 

LIKE When  this  word  qualifies  a  Noun,  it  is  an  Adjective — when  it 

represents  its  Noun,  it  is  an  Adjective  Pronoun.     But  when 
it  shows  a  relation  of  two  words,  it  is  a  Preposition. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  "These  armies  once  lived,  and  breathed,  and  felt 

like  us. 

2.  "  Yet  all  great  learned  men,  like  me, 
Once  learned  to  read  their  A,  B,  C." 


VARIABLE   OFFICES   OF  WORDS.  171 

THAN  . .  .This  word  always  expresses  comparison,  and  comparison  im- 
plies a  relation.  When  this  relation  is  expressed  by  Words, 
than  is  a  Preposition.  When  it  is  expressed  by  Sentences,  and 
when  Words,  Phrases,  or  Sentences  are  merely  connected  by 
it,  it  is  a  Conjunction. 

The  use  of  it  as  a  Preposition  is  sanctioned  by  good  authority, 
ancient  and  modern. 

EXAMPLES.— 1.  "  They  are  stronger  than  lions." 

2.  "Thou  shalt  have  no  other  gods  than  me.'1 — Com.  Pr. 

3.  "  Their  works  are  more  perfect  than  those  of  men." 

THAN  always  introduces  a  Word,  a  Phrase,  or  a  Sentence,  which  con- 
stitutes a  second  term  of  a  comparison  of  inequality. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  "  She  is  more  nice  than  wise." 

"Than"  connects  words,  and  is  therefore  a  Conjunction. 

2.  "  Than  whom  none  higher  sat." 

"Than"  introduces  a  Phrase,  and  is  therefore  a  Preposition. 

3.  "  We  have  more  than  heart  could  wish." 

REM. — "Than"  is  the  object  of  u could  wish,"  and  introduces  the 
Sentence  which  limits  "more,"  hence— by  virtue  of  the  ellipsis — it  is  a 
Relative  Pronoun.  Supply  the  words  suppressed  by  ellipsis,  and  '  *  than' ' 
becomes  a  Preposition. 

OBS.  1. — Many  words  are  used  as  Prepositions  or  Conjunctions,  ac- 
cording as  they  introduce  Phrases  or  Sentences. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  John  arrived  before  me. 

*  *  Before  me' '  . .  Is  a  Phrase,  used  to  modify  ' ( arrived ;"  hence,  Adverbial. 
"Before" Is  a  Preposition. 

2.  John  arrived  before  I  did. 

"Before  I  did".  Is  a  Sentence,   used  to  modify   "arrived;"   hence, 

Adverbial. 
"Before" Is  a  Conjunction. 

3.  John  arrived  as  soon  as  I. 

"  As  I" Is  a  Phrase,  used  to  modify  "arrived ;"  hence,  Adverbial. 

4.  John  arrived  as  soon  as  I  did. 

"As  I  did" Is  a  Sentence,   used  to  modify   "arrived;"   hence, 

Adverbial. 

OBS.  2. — Of  the  many  words  thus  used  as  Prepositions  and  Conjunc- 
tions, custom  allows  two— as  and  than— to  be  followed  by  Pronouns  in 
the  Nominative  form. 


172  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR — PART   H. 

EXAMPLES.  — 1 .   * '  Thou  art  wiser  than  I. ' ' 
2.  "Thou  art  as  tall  as  I." 

»     OBS.  3.— But  the  Objective  form  is  also  used  by  our  best  writers. 

EXAMPLES  — 1.  "  It  is  not  fit  for  such  as  us 

To  sit  with  rulers  of  the  land." —  W.  Scott. 
2.   "  Than  whom  none  higher  sat." — Milton. 

WORTH.  .  .Worth  indicates  value — and  value  implies  a  relation — and 
relation  of  words  is  commonly  expressed  by  a  Preposition. 

EXAMPLE.  — * '  He  possessed  an  estate  worth  five  hundred  pounds  per 
annum." 

Equivalent. — "He  has  an  annuity  of  five  hundred  pounds." 
This  word  is  used  also  as  a  Noun. 

EXAMPLE. — "  He  was  a  man  of  great  worth.'* 

Nor — composed  of  not  and  other — retains  the  offices  of  its  elements. 

EXAMPLE. — "  Nor  will  I  at  my  humble  lot  repine." 

Here  "nor"  being  used  to  modify  "  repine"— is  an  Adverb  of  Nega- 
tion. But  because  it  introduces  a  Sentence  additional  to  a  former  Sen- 
tence, it  is  a  Conjunction  :  like  many  other  Conjunctions,  it  indicates 
the  office  of  the  Sentence  which  it  introduces,  making  it  negative. 


SUBSTITUTION    OF    ELEMENTS. 

OBS.— In  the  structure  of  Sentences,  an  Element  of  one  form  is  often 
substituted  for  that  of  another. 

1.  A  Letter  is  substituted  for  a  word. 
EXAMPLE. — 'Tis  strange. 


C~      'T       ~^T~      is  strange         """*} 

HEM. — Here  "  'T,"  as  an  Element  In  the  Sentence,  is  a  representative 
of  *  it,"  and  is  a  Pronoun — Subject  of  the  Sentence.  Hence,  in  the 
Nominative  Case. 

But  "T,"  as  an  Element  in  the  word  "  it,"  is  a  Letter — a  Consonant 
—Mute — Subsequent  to  its  vowel  "  /. " 

2.  A  Word  is  substituted  for  a  Phrase. 


SUBSTITUTION    OF    ELEMENTS.  173 

EXAMPLE  1.— These  crowd  around  to  ask  him  of  his  health. 


These        Y  crowd  ) 


X 


REM.  1 — "Around,"  as  an  Element  of  the  Sentence,  is  an  Adverb  of 
Place  -being  used  as  a  representative  of  the  Adverbial  Phrase  around  him. 

1 '  Around, "  as  an  Element  of  its  Phrase  is  the  Leader — a  Preposition — 
showing  a  relation  of  "  crowd"  to  him  understood. 

EXAMPLE  2. — Anna  has  gone  home. 


Anna 


has  gone  J 


home       j  \ 

X-~J^2LJ  J 

REM.  2. — "Home,"  as  an  Element  in  the  Sentence,  is  an  Adverb  of 
Place — being  used  as  a  representative  of  the  Phrase  to  her  home. 

"Home,"  as  an  Element  in  its  Phrase,  is  the  Subsequent — Word — 
Noun — Common — Objective  Case — Object  of  to  understood. 

EXAMPLE  3. — Clara  has  come  to  school  early. 


HEM*.  3. — "Early,"  as  an  Element  in  the  Sentence,  is  an  Adverb  of 
Time — being  used  as  a  represent riive  of  the  Phrase  at  an  early  hour. 

"  Early,"  as  an  Element  in  its  Phrase,  is  an  Adjunct — Word — Adjec- 
tive— and  limits  hour  understood. 

For  further  illustrations,  see  Obs.  5  and  6,  page  159 ;  see  also  page 
23,  Obs.  1,  2. 

REM. — A  careful  examination  of  the  genius  of  the  English  language 
will  disclose  the  fact,  that  a  great  majority  of  words  perform  at  the 
same  time  two  or  more  distinct  offices — as  individual  and  as  represent- 
ative. The  RULE  to  be  observed  in  parsing  is.  that  a  word  should  le  parsed 
firtf  ar.rordi.nfj  to  its  representative  office  in  the  Sentence,  then  according  to  its 
individual  office. 

15* 


PART  III. 

SYNTAX. 


REMARK  1. — In  PART  II.  we  have  given  attention  to  the  discussion 
of  WORDS  considered  as  Elements  of  Language  ;  embracing — 

1.  The  Classification  of  Words,  according  to  their  offices. 

2.  The  Modification  of  such  Words  as  vary  their  forms  to  correspond 

•with  changes  in  their  offices. 

HEM.  2. — We  have  now  to  consider  the  Relations  of  the  various  Ele- 
ments of  Language  to  one  another,  in  the  construction  of  Sentences. 

DEF.  132. — Syntax  treats  of  the  construction  of  Sen- 
tences by  determining  the  relation,  agreement,  and  ar- 
rangement of  Words,  and  of  other  Elements. 

GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  AND  DEFINITIONS  TO  BE  NOTICED  IN  ANALYSIS  AND 
CONSTRUCTION. 

I0    SENTENCES. 

I.  A  SENTENCE  is  an  assemblage  of  Words,  so  arranged  as  to  express 
an  entire  proposition. 

(  PRINCIPAL  ELEMENTS 
II.  A  Sentence  consists  of  -J  and 

(  ADJUNCT  ELEMENTS. 

III.  The  PRINCIPAL  ELEMENTS  of  a  Sentence  are  such  as  are  used  to 

make  the  unqualified  assertion. 
^®*  Let  each  Pupil  make  a  Sentence  .having  Principal  Elements 

only. 
IV.  The  ADJUNCTS  of  a  Sentence  are  such  Elements  as  are  used  to 

modify  or  describe  other  Elements  in  the  Sentence. 
#£$"  Let  each  Pupil  make  a  Sentence  having  Adjuncts. 

( The  SUBJECT, 

V-  The  PRINCIPAL  ELEMENTS  of  a  Sentence  are,  •<  The  PREDICATE, 

( The  OBJECT. 

v  VI.  The  SUBJECT  of  a  Sentence  is  that  of  which  something  is  asserted. 


176  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR  —  PART   III. 

VII.  The  PREDICATE  of  a  Sentence  is  the  "Word  or  Words  that  assert 
something  of  the  Subject. 

.  VIII.  The  OBJECT  of  a  Sentence  is  that  on  which  the  act  expressed  by 
the  Predicate  terminates. 

$gi~  Let  each  Pupil  make  a  Sentence,  and  name  the  Subject,  the 
Predicate,  and  the  Object. 

IX.  The  SUBJECT  of  a  Sentence  may  he  (  A  WORD, 

4  A  PHRASE,  or 
X.  The  OBJECT  of  a  Sentence  may  be  \  ^  SENTENCE. 

JB&T'  Let  each  Pupil  make  a  Sentence  having  a  Word  Subject. 
Let  each  Pupil  make  a  Sentence  having  a  Phrase  Subject. 
Let  each  Pupil  make  a  Sentence  having  a  Sentence  Subject. 


XI.  A  WORD  used  as  the  Subject  or  the 
Object  of  a  Sentence  may  be 


A  NOUN 


Proper. 
Personal, 


Relative, 

[  A  PRONOUN,    J  Interrogative^ 
(  Adjective. 

each  Pupil  make  Sentences  having  for  their  Subject  — 


1.  A  Common  Noun. 

2.  A  Proper  Noun. 

3.  A  Personal  Pronoun. 


4.  A  Relative  Pronoun. 

5.  An  Interrogative  Pronoun. 

6.  An  Adjective  Pronoun. 


( Masculine  Gender, 

XII.  NOUNS  and  PRONOUNS  are  of  the  1  Feminine  Gender,  or 

( Neuter  Gender. 

(  First  Person, 

XIII.  NOUNS  and  PRONOUNS  are  of  the  -|  Second  Person,  or 

(  Third  Person. 

-  Number,  or 
^  Plural  Number. 

£3^  Let  the  Pupil  make  Sentences  having  Nouns  and  Pronouns  of 
the  different  Genders,  Persons,  and  Numbers. 

XV.  The  SUBJECT  of  a  Sentence  is  in  the  Nominative  Case. 
XVI.  The  OBJECT  of  a  Sentence  is  in  the  Objective  Case. 

'  Another  VERB, 
A  PARTICIPLE, 


XIV.  NOUNS  and  PRONOUNS  are  of  the  \ 

( 


XVII.  The  GRAMMATICAL  PREDICATE  j  A  VERB,  with 
of  a  Sentence  is  1     or  without 


An  ADJECTIVE, 
A  NOUN, 
A  PRONOUN,  or 
A  PREPOSITION. 


the  Pupil  make  Sentences  containing  Examples  of  each 
variety  of  Predicate  mentioned. 


GENERAL    PRINCIPLES. 


177 


'  INDICATIVE 
MODE, 

'  Prior  Pcist  Tense, 
Past  Tense, 
Prior  Present  Tense, 
Present  Tense, 
Prior  Future  Tense, 
Future  Tense. 

XVIII.  A  VERB  in  Predicate  may 
be  in  the 


Past  Tense, 
Present  Tense. 

Present  Tense. 


{Prior  Past  Tense, 
Past  Tense, 
Prior  Present  Tense, 
Present  Tense. 

SUBJUNCTIVE  j 
MODE,          ( 

IMPERATIVE    j 
MODE,          ( 

J^*  Let  the  Pupil  make  Sentences  having  Verbs  in  each  of  the 
Modes  and  Tenses  mentioned. 

( Person 
XIX.  A  VERB  in  Predicate  must  agree  with  its  Subject  in  )    and 

( Number. 
(  PRIMARY 
XX.  The  ADJUNCTS  of  a  Sentence  are  J        or 

(  SECONDARY. 

XXI.  PRIMARY  ADJUNCTS  are  attached  to  the  Principal  Parts  of  a 
Sentence  or  of  a  Phrase. 

XXII.  SECONDARY  ADJUNCTS  are  attached  to  other  Adjuncts. 

(  WORDS, 
XXin.  ADJUNCTS  may  consist  of  -<  PHRASES,  or 

(  SENTENCES. 

^^**  Let  the  Pupil  make  Sentences  containing  Words  Adjuncts. 
Let  the  Pupil  make  Sentences  containing  Phrases  Adjuncts. 
Let  the  Pupil  make  Sentences  containing  Sentences  Adjuncts. 

(  Compar. 
Superl. 
Posit. 
Dimin. 


'  Qualifying, 


XXIV.  WORDS,    PHRASES,    and 
SENTENCES  used  as  Ad-  - 
juncts  are 


ADJECTIVES 


ADVERBS, 


(  Pure. 

Specifying, 

-j  Numer. 

(  Possess. 

Verbal, 

j  Trans. 
1  Intrans. 

Time, 

Place, 

Degree, 

Manner, 

Cause, 

etc.,  etc. 

178  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR PART   III. 

(  INTRANSITIVE  or  TRANSITIVE, 
XXY.  A  SENTENCE  may  be  -j  SIMPLE  or  COMPOUND, 

(  PRINCIPAL  or  AUXILIARY. 

XXVI.  An  INTRANSITIVE  SENTENCE  has  no  Object. 
^^  Let  the  Pupil  make  an  Intransitive  Sentence. 
XXVII.  A  TRANSITIVE  SENTENCE  has  an  Object. 
^^  Let  the  Pupil  make  a  Transitive  Sentence. 
XXVIII.  A  SIMPLE  SENTENCE  has  all  its  Principal  Parts  single. 
j^f*  Let  the  Pupil  make  a  Simple  Sentence. 

XXIX.  A  COMPOUND  SENTENCE  has  some  of  its  Principal  Parts  com- 
pound. 

j£S=f*  Let  the  Pupil  make  a  Compound  Sentence. 
XXX.  A  PRINCIPAL  SENTENCE  asserts  a  Principal  Proposition. 
XXXI.  An  AUXILIARY  SENTENCE  asserts  a  Dependent  Proposition. 
^^Let  the  Pupil  make  a  Complex  Sentence,  and  distinguish  the 

Principal  Sentence  from  the  Auxiliary  Sentence. 

XXXII.  CONJUNCTIONS    introduce   Sentences   and   connect  Words, 
Phrases,  and  Sentences. 

XXXIII.  A  PREPOSITION  shows  a  relation  of  its  object  to  the  word 

which  its  Phrase  qualifies. 

XXXIV.  An  EXCLAMATION  has  no  dependent  construction. 
XXXV.  A  WORD  OF  EUPHONY  is,  in  its  office,  chiefly  Rhetorical. 


II.    PHRASES. 

XXXVI.  A  PHRASE  is  a  combination  of  Words  not  constituting  an 
entire  proposition,  but  performing  a  distinct  office  in  the 
structure  of  a  Sentence  or  of  another  Phrase. 

(  PRINCIPAL  ELEMENTS, 
XXXVII.  A  PHRASE  consists  of  I  and 

(  ADJUNCT  ELEMENTS. 
XXXVIII.  The  PRINCIPAL  ELEMENTS  of  a  Phrase  are  those  words  neces- 

sary to  its  structure. 

2^  Let  the  Pupil  make  a  Phrase  having  Principal  Elements  only. 
XXXIX.  The  ADJUNCTS  of  a  Phrase  are  Elements  used  to  modify  or 

describe  other  Elements. 
the  Pupil  make  a  Phrase  having  Adjuncts. 

{ 


XL.  The  PRINCIPAL  ELEME™  of  a  Phrase  are 


PHEASES — CLASSIFICATION.  179 

XLI.  The  LEADER  of  a  Phrase  is  the  Word  used  to  introduce  the 
Phrase — generally  connecting  its  Subsequent  to  the  Word 
which  the  Phrase  qualifies. 
XLII.  The  SUBSEQUENT  of  a  Phrase  is  the  Element  which  follows  the 

Leading  Word  as  its  Object. 

^^  Let  the  Pupil  make  Phrases  and  distinguish  the  Leaders  from 
the  Subsequents. 

(Adjective  )  WORDS, 

XL1II.  The  ADJUNCTS  may  consist  of  •<        or       5-  PHRASES,  or 

( Adverbial }  SENTENCES. 

^®"  Let  the  Pupil  make  Sentences  having  Adjective  Words — Phrases 
— Sentences. 

XLIV.  A  PHRASE  is  JTKANsmvEor 
{  INTRANSITIVE. 

XLV.  A  PHRASE  having  a  Transitive  Verb  or  Participle  as  a  Principal 

Element,  is  a  TRANSITIVE  PHRASE. 
^f**Let  the  Pupil  make  a  Transitive  Phrase;   1.  Participial — 2. 

Infinitive. 

XL VI.  A  PHRASE  whose  Subsequent  is  a  Noun  or  a  Pronoun,  or  a 
Verb  or  a  Participle  having  no  Object,  is  an  INTRANSITIVE 
PHRASE. 

IfZlS*  Let  the  Pupil  make  an  Intransitive  Phrase  ;   1.  Prepositional— 
2.  Participial — 3.  Infinitive — 4.  Independent. 

{PREPOSITIONAL, 
fe™Lor 
INDEPENDENT. 

XL VIII.  A  PREPOSITIONAL  PHRASE  is  one  that  is  introduced  by  a  Prepo- 
sition— having  a  Substantive  Element  as  its  object  of 
relation. 

j^T"  Let  the  Pupil  make  a  Prepositional  Phrase. 

XLIX.  A  PARTICIPIAL  PHRASE  is  one  that  is  introduced  by  a  Participle, 
being  followed  by  an  Object  of  an  action,  or  by  an  Adjunct. 
^^  Let  the  Pupil  make  a  Participial  Phrase. 

L.  An  INFINITIVE  PHRASE  is  one  that  is  introduced  by  the  Prepo- 
sition TO — having  a  Verb  in  the  Infinitive  Mode  as  its 
Object  of  relation. 
J5®*  Let  the  Pupil  make  an  Infinitive  Phrase. 

LI.  An  INDEPENDENT  PHRASE  is  one  that  is  introduced  by  a  Noun 

or  a  Pronoun— having  a  Participle  depending  on  it. 
/&-  Let  the  Pupil  make  an  Independent  Phrase. 


180  ENGLISH    GKAMMAK — PART   III. 

III.  A  PHRASE  is  COMPOUND  when  it  has  two  or  more  Leaders  or 

Subsequents. 
jg&*  Let  the  Pupil  make  a  Compound  Phrase — Compound  Leaders — 

Compound  Subsequent. 
LIII.  A  PHRASE  is  COMPLEX  when  one  of  its  Principal  Parts  is  qualified 

by  another  Phrase. 

^^"  Let  the  Pupil  make  a  Complex  Phrase. 
LIV.  A  PHRASE  is  MIXED  when  it  has  one  or  more  Transitive,  and  one 

or  more  Intransitive,  Subsequents. 
2^S*  Let  the  Pupil  make  a  Mixed  Phrase. 

HEM  1. — Words  combined  into  a  Sentence,  have  a  relation  to  each 
other— a  relation  which  often  determines  their  forms.  The  Principal 
Modifications  of  words,  as  treated  in  PART  II.  of  this  work,  are  those 
of  form — and  these  forms  vary  according  to  their  relation  to  other 
words. 

But  the  form  does  not  always  determine  the  office  of  words  in  a 
Sentence. 

I  may  say,  "  Frederick  assisted  James," 
and  "James  assisted  Frederick." 

Here,  although  I  use  the  same  words  and  the  same  form  of  those 
words,  I  make  two  widely  different  assertions.  The  difference  in  the 
assertions  in  these  examples  is  caused  by  the  change  of  position  of  the 
Words.  Hence  the  laws  of  AGREEMENT  and  ARRANGEMENT  of  words  ia 
the  construction  of  Sentences. 

BEM.  2. — As  Diagrams  are  of  great  service  in  constructing  Sentences, 
by  serving  as  tests  of  the  grammatical  correctness  of  a  composition, 
they  are  inserted  in  PART  III.  It  is  hoped  that  the  Teacher  will  not 
fail  to  require  the  Class  to  write  Sentences  which  shall  contain  words 
in  every  possible  condition,  and  in  every  variety  of  modification. 
Young  Pupils  and  beginners  should  be  required  to  place  the  Sentences 
in  Diagrams. 

EXERCISES    IN   THE    ANALYSIS    OF    SENTENCES. 

HEM. — Teachers  will  find  the  use  of  the  blackboard  of  great  service 
in  the  Analysis  of  Sentences  and  of  Phrases. 

Of  the  many  MODELS  for  Analysis,  used  by  successful  Teachers,  the 
following  are  given,  in  addition  to  those  found  in  PART  I. 

FIRST  MODEL. 

"An  hour  like  this  may  well  display  the  emptiness  of  human 
grandeur." 


EXERCISES    IN    ANALYSIS    BY   THE    CHART.  181 


The  Modified*  Subject An  hour  like  this 

The  Logical^  Predate |  m  1'1^  tb°  cmPtiness  of  human 


The  Modified^  Predicate may  well  display 

Tl,e  Modified  Object the  emptiness  of  human  grandeur. 

ADJUNCTS. 

m  ,,    cv  , .                              (  An  . .                                      .  .a  Word. 
Of  the  Subject j  like  this a  Phrase. 

Of  the  Predicate well a  Word. 

f\ftif\i-4  i  the a  Word. 

Of  the  O^ect -j  of  human  grandeur a  Phrase. 

SECOND  MODEL. 

"  How  dear  to  my  heart  are  the  scenes  of  my  childhood." 
Principal  Elements.  Modified  Elements.         Adjunct  Elements. 

e,        <4C  ,,        (The   scenes  of  my  (The a  Word. 

ies'     ' '  (      childhood \  Of  my  childhood .  a  Phrase. 

Pr«7     "  ATP  dpar  "  j  Are  how  dear  to  my  C  How a  Word. 

]      heart {  To  my  heart a  Phrase. 

THIRD  MODEL. 

"The  lowing  HERD  WINDS  slowly  o'er  the  lea  " 
The  Modified  Subject.  The  Modified  Predicate. 

"  The  lowing  HERD"  "  WINDS  slowly  o'er  the  lea." 

The  Grammatic  Subject.  Its  Adjuncts.     The  Grammatic}  radicate.  Its  Adjuncts. 

TT  .  (     The .  ?  AAT  (      Slowly 

HERD {  lowing \  Wis6s \  o'er  the  lea 

EXERCISES   ON  THE  CHART. 

HEM.  1. — The  following  Exercises  will  exhibit  the  proper  method  of 
using  the  Chart  in  Etymological  Parsing. 

HEM.  2. — If  the  large  Chart  is  used,  the  attention  of  the  whole  Class 
should  be  directed  to  it — one  of  the  Students  using  a  "pointer,"  as  he 
repeats  the  construction  of  each  word,  according  to  the  formula:  given 
below. 

HEM.  3.— It  is  well  for  beginners  in  Etymological  Parsing  to  have 
the  Sentence  to  be  parsed  first  placed  in  Diagram  on  the  blackboard. 
1.  Animals  run. 


Animals 


Animals.  .  .  An  Element  in  the  SENTENCE  —  PRINCIPAL  ELEMENT  —  SUBJECT  — 
WORD  —  NOUN  —  COMMON  —  MASCULINE  Gender  —  THIRD  Person 
—  PLURAL  Number  —  NOMINATIVE  Case. 

*  See  page  25.  t  See  page  26. 

16 


182  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR — PART   III. 

Kun An  Element  in  the  SENTENCE — PRINCIPAL  ELEMENT — 

PREDICATE — VERB — INDICATIVE  MODE — PRESENT  Tense. 

2.  Mary  is  reading. 
(*      Mary      3O8    i     reading    ^ 


Mary An  Element  in  the  SENTENCE— PRINCIPAL  ELEMENT — 

SUBJECT  — WORD — NOUN —  PROPER — FEMININE  Gender — 
THIRD  Person — SINGULAR  Number — NOMINATIVE  Case. 

Is  reading An  Element  in  the  SENTENCE — PRINCIPAL  ELEMENT — 

PREDICATE — VERB  and  PARTICIPLE — Verb  is  in  the  IN- 
DICATIVE Mode — PRESENT  Tense . 

Reading An  Element  in  the  SENTENCE — PRINCIPAL  ELEMENT — 

used  in  PREDICATE  with  "  is. " 

3.  He  might  have  been  respected. 

C^  He   Ymight  have   been    respected  ^ 

He An  Element  in  the  SENTENCE — PRINCIPAL  ELEMENT- 
SUBJECT — WORD — PRONOUN — PERSONAL — MAScuLiNEGen- 
der— ^THIRD  Person — SINGULAR  Number — NOMINATIVE 
Case, 

Might  have      )  An  (Element  in  the  SENTENCE — PRINCIPAL  ELEMENT— 
been  respected )  PREDICATE — two  VERBS  and  two  PARTICIPLES — Verb  is 
inythe  POTENTIAL  Mode — PRIOR  PAST  Tense. 

4.  His  palsied  hand  waxed  strong. 


waxed        strong    J 

His An  Element  in  the  SENTENCE — ADJUNCT — PRIMARY — 

WORD — ADJECTIVE— SPECIFYING — POSSESSIVE. 

Palsied An  Element  in  the  Sentence— ADJUNCT— PRIMARY— 

WORD — ADJECTIVE — VERBAL — INTRANSITIVE. 

Hand ,  .An  Element  in  the  SENTENCE — PRINCIPAL  ELEMENT — 

SUBJECT  — WORD  —  NOUN — COMMON — NEUTER  Gender — 
THIRD  Person— SINGULAR  Number — NOMINATIVE  Case. 

Waxed  strong  .  An  Element  in  the  SENTENCE — PRINCIPAL  ELEMENT — 
PREDICATE — VERB  and  ADJECTIVE — Verb  is  in  the  IN- 
DICATIVE Mode — PAST  Tense. 

Strong An  Element  in  the  SENTENCE— ADJECTIVE  used  in  PRE- 
DICATE with  "  waxed." 


EXERCISES    ON   THE    CIIAKT. 


183 


5.  That  good  men  sometimes  commit  faults,  can  not  be  denied. 


That  good  men}  An  Element  in  the  SENTENCE — PRINCIPAL  ELEMENT — 
sometime    >  SUBJECT  —  SENTENCE  —  SUBSTANTIVE  —  SIMPLE  —  TRANS- 
commit  faults,  )  ITIVE. 
Canr  be  denied. .  .  An  Element  in  the  SENTENCE— PRINCIPAL  ELEMENT — 

PREDICATE — two  VERBS  and  a  PARTICIPLE — Verb  is  in 

the  POTENTIAL  Mode — PRESENT  Tense. 
Not An  Element  in  the  SENTENCE — ADJUNCT — PRIMARY — 

WORD — ADVERB  of  Negation. 

6.  He  hears  the  thunder  ere  the  tempest  lowers. 
He 


He An  Element  in  the  SENTENCE — PRINCIPAL  ELEMENT — 

SUBJECT — WORD — PRONOUN — PERSONAL — MASCULINE  Gen- 
der—THIRD  Person — SINGULAR  Number — NOMINATIVE 
p  Case. 

Hears .^...An  Element  in  the  SENTENCE — PRINCIPAL  ELEMENT — 

PREDICATE — VERB — INDICATIVE  Mode— PRESENT  Tense. 

The An  Element  in  the  SENTENCE — ADJUNCT— PRIMARY — 

WORD— ADJECTIVE — SPECIFYING— PURE. 

Thunder An  Element  in  the  SENTENCE — PRINCIPAL  ELEMENT — 

OBJECT — WORD — NOUN— COMMON— NEUTER  Gender — 
THIRD  Person — SINGULAR  Number — OBJECTIVE  Case. 

Ere  the  tern- )  An  Element  in  the  SENTENCE — ADJUNCT — PRIMARY — 
s. . .  \  SENTENCE — ADVERB — INTRANSITIVE. 

7.  Too  low  they  build  who  build  beneath  the  stars. 


pest  lowers. 


Too An  Element  in  the  SENTENCE— ADJUNCT—  SECONDARY— 

WORD— ADVERB— of  Degree. 


184: 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR PART   III. 


Low An  Element  in  the  SENTENCE— ADJUNCT — PRIMARY — 

WORD— ADVERB — of  Place. 

They An  Element  in  the  SENTENCE — PRINCIPAL  ELEMENT — 

SUBJECT  —  WORD  —  PERSONAL  —  MASCULINE  Gender  — 
THIRD  Person — PLURAL  Number— NOMINATIVE  Case. 

Build An  Element  in  the  SENTENCE — PRINCIPAL  ELEMENT — 

PREDICATE — VERB — INDICATIVE  Mode — PRESENT  Tense. 

Who  build  be- )  An  Element  in  the  SENTENCE— ADJUNCT — PRIMARY — 

neath  the  stars )  SENTENCE — ADJECTIVE — SIMPLE — INTRANSITIVE. 

Who An  Element  in  the  Auxiliary  SENTENCE — PRINCIPAL 

ELEMENT — SUBJECT — WORD — PRONOUN — RELATIVE — MAS- 
CULINE Gender — THIRD  Person — PLURAL  Number — 
NOMINATIVE  Case. 

Build An  Element  in  the  SENTENCE — PRINCIPAL  ELEMENT — 

VERB — INDICATIVE  Mode — PRESENT  Tense. 

Beneath    the    )  An  Element  in  the  SENTENCE — ADJUNCT— SECONDARY — 


stars )  PHRASE— ADVERBIAL — PREPOSITIONAL — INTRANSITIVE. 


8.  "  Scaling  yonder  peak,    - 

I  saw  an  eagle  wheeling  near  its  brow.'1 


Scaling  yonder  >  An  Element  in  the  SENTENCE — an  ADJUNCT— PRIMARY — 

peak j  a  PHRASE — ADJECTIVE — PARTICIPIAL — TRANSITIVE. 

I An  Element  in  the  SENTENCE — PRINCIPAL  ELEMENT — 

SUBJECT  —  WORD  —  PRONOUN  —  PERSONAL  —  MASCULINE 
Gender — FIRST  Person— SINGULAR  Number — NOMINA- 
TIVE Case. 

Saw An  Element  in  the  SENTENCE — PRINCIPAL  ELEMENT — 

PREDICATE — VERB — INDICATIVE  Mode — PAST  Tense. 

An An  Element  in  the  SENTENCE— an  ADJUNCT — PRIMARY — 

WORD — ADJECTIVE — SPECIFYING — PURE. 

Eagle An  Element  in  the  SENTENCE PRINCIPAL  ELEMENT — 

OBJECT — WORD— NOUN — COMMON—  MASCULINE  Gender — 
THIRD  Person— SINGULAR.  Number— OBJECTIVE  Case. 


ANALYSIS    OF   PIIKASES    BY   THE   CHAKT. 


185 


"Wheeling  near  j  An  Element  in  the  SENTENCE — an  ADJUNCT — PRIMARY — 

its  brow j  PHRASE— ADJECTIVE— PARTICIPIAL— INTRANSITIVE. 

Near  its  brow. .  .An  Element  in  the  PHRASE — an  ADJUNCT — SECONDARY 
— PHRASE — ADVERBIAL — PREPOSITIONAL— INTRANSITIVE. 
HEM.— In  the  analysis  of  a  Complex  Sentence  (see  OBS.  p.  42),  an 
Auxiliary  Sentence  is  found  to  perform  an  individual  office,  and  ac- 
cordingly it  is  parsed  as  one  Etymological  Element  of  the  Principal  Sen- 
tence     After  it  has  been  thus  parsed,  it  should  itself  be  analyzed,  and 
the  Words  and  Phrases  of  which  it  is  composed,  be  parsed  according  to 
their  respective  offices.     The  same  remark  is  applicable  to  Phrases. 
[See  Exercise  7,  above,  and  2,  below.} 

ANALYSIS    OF   PHRASES    BY   THE    CHART. 

EXERCISES. 

1.  In  the  beginning  (a  Prepositional  Phrase)- 


beginning 


In An  Element  in  the  PHRASE — PRINCIPAL  ELEMENT— the 

LEADER — a  PREPOSITION. 

The An  Element  in  the  PHRASE — an  ADJUNCT — WORD — AD- 
JECTIVE. 

Beginning . . .  An  Element  in  the  PHRASE — PRINCIPAL  ELEMENT — the  SUB- 
SEQUENT— a  WORD — NOUN — OBJECT. 

2.   "Scaling  yonder  peak"  (a  Participial  Phrase) 


Scaling An  Element  in  the  PHRASE — PRINCIPAL  ELEMENT — the 

LEADER  —  a  PARTICIPLE — TRANSITIVE. 

Yonder An  Element  in  the  PHRASE— an  ADJUNCT — WORD — AD- 
JECTIVE. 

Peak An  Element  in  the  PHRASE — PRINCIPAL  ELEMENT — the  SUB- 
SEQUENT— a  WORD — NOUN — OBJECT. 

3.  "  The  time  having  arrived"  (an  Independent  Phrase). 


The. 


Q  time          ^) 

L  The  J  (having  arrived) 

.An  Element  in  the  PHRASE— an  ADJUNCT— WORD— AD- 
JECTIVE. 

16* 


186  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR — PART   III. 

Time An   Element   in  the   PHRASE — PRINCIPAL  ELEMENT — the 

LEADER — a  NOUN — INDEPENDENT  Case. 

Having        )  An  Element  in  the  PHRASE — PRINCIPAL  ELEMENT — the  SUB- 
arrived j  SEQUENT— a  PARTICIPLE — INTRANSITIVE. 

4.  To  bestow  many  favors  (an  Infinitive  Phrase), 


To  ..........  An   Element   in    the   PHRASE—  PRINCIPAL  ELEMENT—  the 

LEADER—  a  PREPOSITION. 
Bestow  ......  An  Element  in  the  PHRASE  —  PRINCIPAL  ELEMENT  —  a  part 

of  the   SUBSEQUENT  —  a  VERB  —  INFINITIVE    Mode  —  TRANS- 

ITIVE. 
Many.  .....  .An  Element  in  the  PHRASE—  an  ADJUNCT  —  ADJECTIVE. 

Favors  ......  An  Element  in  the  PHRASE  —  PRINCIPAL  ELEMENT  —  a  part 

of  the  SUBSEQUENT  —  OBJECT—  WORD  —  NOUN. 

HEM.  —  Exercises  like  the  ahove  are  well  calculated  to  prepare  the 
Student  for  Exercises  in  Syntax  ;  and  when  he  shall  have  learned  the 
Bules  of  Syntax,  he  should  combine  the  above  Exercises  with  the  ap- 
plication of  those  Rules. 

SYNTAX    OF   TPIE   ELEMENTS    OF    SENTENCES. 

I.    Of  the  Principal  Elements. 
(1.)  THE  SUBJECT. 


(         Subject        X  Y  __ 

RULE  1.  —  The  Subject  of  -a   Sentence  must  be  in  the 
Nominative  Case. 

OBS.  1.  —  The  Subject  of  a  Sentence  is  always  Substantive  in  its  office. 
[See  p.  25,  OBS.  2.] 

(A  Word, 

OBS.  2.  —  The  Subject  of  a  Sentence  may  be  -!  A  Phrase,  or 

(  A  Sentence. 

EXAMPLES. 

1    A  Word   \  (fl)  Noun  '  '  *1'  "  Virtue  secures  happiness." 

(  (6)  Pronoun.  2.  "  He  plants  his  footsteps  in  the  sea." 
2.  A  Phrase  ............  3.   "  His    lemg    a    minister,    prevented  his 

rising  to  civil  power." 


ELEMENTS    OF    SENTENCES.  187 

4.   "  To  give  good  gifts  and  to  be  benevolent, 

are  often  very  different  things." 

3.  A  Sentence 5.   "  That  all  men  are  created  equal,  is  a  self- 
evident  truth." 

REM. — Whatever  is  peculiar  to  Pronouns,  is  discussed  under  the  RULE 
for  Pronouns.  We  now  proceed  to  discuss  \vhat  is  common  to  Nouns, 
Pronouns,  Phrases,  and  Sentences,  considered  as  Subjects  of  Sentences. 

OBS.  3. — The  Subject  of  a  Sentence  may  be  ascertained  by  its  an- 
swering to  the  Interrogatives  Who  ?  or  What  ?  placed  before  the  Pred- 
icate. Thus,  in  the  Examples  above — 

What  "  secures  happiness?" Ans.— "  Virtue." 

Who  ' '  plants  his  footsteps  in  the  sea  ?' '  .Ans. — "  He. ' ' 

What  * '  prevented  his  rising  to  civil )    .  «**.«•• 

>  Ans.  —    His  being  a  minister. 
power?" J 

What  "  is  a  self-evident  truth  ?" Ans. — "  That  oil  men  are 

credited  equal. ' ' 

What  '  *  are  often  different  things  ?" . . .  Ans. — ' '  To  give  good  gifts  and 

to  be  benevolent." 

REM. — In  parsing  Phrases  and  Auxiliary  Sentences,  the  same  Ruleg 
are  applicable  as  those  given  for  Word  Elements. 

SUBJECT   WORD. 
OBS.  4. — A  Subject  Word  must  be  a  Noun  or  a  Pronoun. 

(a.}  THE  FORM  or  THE  NOMINATIVE. 

OBS.  5. — Because  English  Nouns  are  not  varied  in  form  to  denote 
the  Case  (except  the  Possessive),  much  attention  is  required  in  giving 
them  their  proper  position  in  a  Sentence.  [See  REMARK  1,  p.  178.] 

But  when  the  Subject  of  a  Sentence  is  a  Personal  Pronoun,  the 
form  indicates  the  Subject. 

(6.)  POSITION  OF  THE  NOMINATIVE. 

NOTE  I. — In  position,  the  Subject  of  a  Sentence  com- 
monly precedes  the  Verb. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  Animals  RUN. 

2.  Resources  ARE  DEVELOPED. 

3.  Virtue  SECURES  happiness. 

4.  "  The  king  of  shadows  LOVES  a  shining  mark." 

6.   ' '  The  sword  and  the  plague-spot  with  death  STREW  the 
plain." 


188  ENGLISH    GEAMMAE PART   III. 

±*~ 

EXCEPTION  1. — Tn  Interrogative  Sentences,  the  Subject  is  placed  after 
the  Verb,  when  the  Verb  constitutes  a  complete  Predicate. 

EXAMPLE. — "  Heeds  HE  not  the  bursting  anguish  ?" 

EXCEPTION  2. — When  the  Predicate  of  an  Interrogative  Sentence 
consists  of  two  Verbs,  or  a  Verb  and  a  Participle,  Adjective,  Noun,  etc., 
the  Subject  is  placed  after  the  first  word  of  the  Predicate. 

EXAMPLES. — Is  HE  injured  ? — Is  SHE  kind  ? — Is  HE  a  scholar  ? — Must  I 
leave  thee  ? 

OBS  1. — But  the  Interrogatives,  who,  which,  and  what,  used  as  Sub- 
jects, precede  their  Verbs. 

EXAMPLES. — "  WHO  irill  show  us  any  good  ?" 

"  WHAT  can  compensate  for  loss  of  character?" 
"  WHICH  shall  Le  taken  first?" 

EXCEPTION  3.—  The  Subject  follows  the  Predicate,  or  the  first  Word 
of  the  Predicate,  in  Declarative  Sentences,  when  the  Conjunction  tf, 
used  to  introduce  a  conditional  or  modifying  Sentence,  is  omitted. 

EXAMPLE. — "  Dost  THOU  not,  Hassan,  lay  these  dreams  aside, 

I'll  plunge  thee  headlong  in  the  whelming  tide." 

EXCEPTION  4. — When  the  word  there  is  used  only  to  introduce  the 
Sentence. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.   "There  is  a  CALM  for  those  who  weep." 

2.  ' '  There  breathes  not  a  SOUND, 

While  friends  in  their  sadness  are  gathering  round." 

EXCEPTION  5. — When  the  Verb  is  in  the  Imperative  Mode. 

EXAMPLE. — u  Turn  YE,  turn  YE  at  my  reproof." 
"•    EXCEPTION  6. — By  the  poets  and  public  speakers,  for  rhetorical  effect. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.   "Loud  peals  the  THUNDER." 

2.   "  Perish  the  groveling  THOUGHT." 

OBS.  2. — When  one  word  includes  in  its  signification  niany  others, 
expressed  in  the  same  connection,  the  general  term  is  the  proper  Sub- 
ject of  the  Verb  ;  and  the  included  terms  may  be  regarded  as  explana- 
tory, and,  therefore,  independent  in  construction.  [See  Independent 
Case,  p.  85.] 

EXAMPLE. — "All  sink  before  it— comfort,  joy,  and  wealth." 

Some  teachers  prefer  to  supply  the  ellipsis — which  is  not  improper. 
»  OBS.  3. — The  Subject  of  an  Imperative  Verb  is  commonly  suppressed. 

EXAMPLE. — "  [  ]  Take  each  man's  censure,  but  [  ]  reserve  thy 
judgment." 


SUBJECT   PHRASE.  189 

OBS.  4. — But  it  is  sometimes  expressed. 

EXAMPLE. — "  Go  ye  into  all  the  world." 

OBS.  5. — It  is  sometimes  accompanied  by  an  explanatory  word. 

EXAMPLE. — ' '  Ye  rapid  FLOODS,  give  way .' '    [See  ' '  Independent  Case. ' '] 

NOTE  II. — Unnecessary  repetition  of  the  Subject  should 
be  avoided. 

OBS.  1. — This  principle  is  violated  in  the  following  Example : 
"  His  teeth,  they  chatter,  chatter  still." 

OBS.  2. — But  this  practice  is  allowable,  when  necessary  to  a  proper 
rhetorical  effect. 

EXAMPLES. — Our  Fathers,  where  are  they  9    And  the  Prophets,  do  they 
live  for  ever  ? 

OBS.  3. — The  agent  of  an  action  is  commonly  the  Subject  of  the  Sen- 
tence, but  the  agent  of  an  action  expressed  by  an  Infinitive  Verb,  may 
be  in  the  Nominative  or  in  the  Objective  Case. 

1.  Nominative. — I  purpose  to  go. 

2.  Objective. — I  invited  HIM  to  go. 

Ous  4. — The  agent  of  an  action  expressed  by  a  Participle  is  com- 
monly in  the  Possessive  Case. 

EXAMPLES. — I  heard  of  your  going  to  Boston. 

John's  joining  the  army  was  unexpected  by  his  friends. 

OBS.  5. — But  it  may  be  in  the  Nominative,  in  the  Objective,  and  in 
the  Independent  Case. 

EXAMPLES. 

Nominative. — "Scaling  yonder  peak,  /saw  an  eagle 
Objective. —  Wheeling  near  its  brow." 
Independent. — The  hour  having  arrived,  we  commenced  the  exercises. 

REM. — Hence,  the  agent  of  an  action  can  not  always  be  regarded  as 
the  Subject  of  a  Sentence. 

SUBJECT    PHRASE. 
1.  "To  steal  is  base." 


190  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR PART   III. 

2.  "  Writing  letters  constitutes  my  most  agreeable  employment," 


OBS.  6. — A  Subject  Phrase  constitutes  one  distinct  Element  in  the 
structure  of  a  Sentence,  and  should  be  construed  and  parsed  in  the  same 
manner  as  a  Subject  Word.  Thus, 

In  Sentence  1,  "To  steal"  is  a  Phrase — in  form,  Infinitive; 

in  office,  Substantive ;  for  it  is 
the  Subject  of  "is  base." 

"  Writing  letters"  is  a  Phrase — in  form,  Participial; 

in  office,  Substantive  ;  for  it  is  the  Sub- 
ject of  "constitutes  employment." 

OBS.  7. — After  a  Phrase  as  such  has  been  parsed,  it  should  be  ana- 
lyzed, by  resolving  it  into  its  constituent  Elements.  Thus,  in  the 
Phrase  "to  steal,"  "to"  is  a  Preposition — the  Leader  of  the  Infinitive 
Phrase ;  "  steal,"  is  a  Verb,  Infinitive  Mode — the  Subsequent  of  the  Phrase, 
and  Object  of  the  Preposition  "to." 

And  in  the  Phrase  "  writing  letters,"  "  writing"  is  a  Participle — the 
Leader  of  the  Participial  Phrase  ;  "  letters"  is  a  Noun — the  Subsequent 
of  the  Phrase,  and  Object  of  the  action  expressed  by  "writing." 

FORM  OF  THE  SUBJECT  PHRASE. 

OBS.  8. — The  Phrases  commonly  used  as  Subjects  of  Sentences,  are 
the  Infinitive  and  the  Participial — Prepositional  and  Independent  Phrases 
being  seldom  thus  used.  [See  CLARK'S  ANALYSIS,  page  109,  note.] 

POSITION  or  THE  SUBJECT  PHRASE. 

NOTE  III. — In  Position,  the  Subject  Phrase  commonly 
precedes  its  Predicate. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.   To  do  good  is  the  DUTY  of  all  men. 

2,  Managing  the  household  affairs  now  CONSTITUTES  the  sum 
of  my  employments. 

OBS.  1. — EXCEPTION. — The  Subject  Phrase  sometimes  follows  its  Pred- 
icate. 

EXAMPLE. — "The  sure  WAY  to  be  cheated  is,  to  fancy  ourselves  more 
cunning  than  others. ' ' 

KEM.  1. — "  To  fancy  ourselves  more  cunning  than  others,'1  is  the  Subject. 
"Is  way,"  is  the  Predicate. 


SUBJECT    SENTENCES.  191 

HEM.  2. — This  position  generally  obtains,  when  the  Indefinite  Pro- 
noun it  is  placed  instead  of  the  Phrase.  "  1C'  precedes,  and  the  Phrase 
follows  the  Verb. 

EXAMPLE. — IT  is  the  duty  of  all  to  do  good  to  others. 

HEM.  3. — In  parsing  Examples  like  these,  the  Phrase  is  to  be  regarded 
as  explanatory  of  the  Pronoun  it — used  to  define  the  Indefinite  Word— 
and  is,  in  its  office,  analogous  to  a  Word  used  to  explain  a  preceding 
Noun.  [See  Independent  Case,  Obs.  2,  p.  85.] 

SUBJECT   SENTENCES. 
"  That  I  have  taken  this  old  mans  daughter  is  most  true. 


OBS.  2. — In  Examples  like  the  above  we  have  two  Sentences — one, 
Principal,  the  other  Auxiliary  or  Subordinate.  The  Auxiliary  Sentence 
is  an  Element  in  the  Principal — the  Subject,  and  should  be  parsed 
accordingly. 

Thus,  in  the  above  Complex  Sentence,  the  Principal  Sentence  is 
Simple,  Intransitive,  having  one  Subject — "  That  I  have  taken  this  old  mans 
daughter ;"  one  Predicate — "is  true;"  and  one  Adjunct — "  most." 

OBS.  3. — After  an  Auxiliary  Sentence  has  been  parsed,  as  one  Element 
in  its  Principal  Sentence,  it  should  be  analyzed  by  resolving  it  into  its 
constituent  Elements.  Thus,  in  the  Auxiliary  Sentence  given  above, 

"  That" Introduces  the  Sentence  ;  hence,  a  Conjunction. 

"I" Is  the  Subject  of  its  Sentence ;  hence,  a  Substantive. 

11  Have  taken" .  Is  the   Predicate  of   its  Sentence;    a    Verb  and 
Participle. 

"This" Is  an  Adjunct  of  "  man"['s]  ;  hence,  an  Adjective. 

"Old" Is  an  Adjunct  of  "man"['s]  ;  hence,  an  Adjective. 

" Man's" Is  an  Adjunct  of  "daughter  ;"  hence,  an  Adjective. 

"Daughter"  . .  .Is  the  Object  of  "  have  taken  ;"  hence,  a  Substajitive. 
OBS.  4. — The  Subject  Sentence  is  commonly—  not  always — introduced 
by  the  Conjunction  "that."     [See  Examples  below.] 

POSITION  OF  SUBJECT  SENTENCES. 

NOTE  IV. — A  Subject  Sentence  is  placed  before  its 
Predicate. 


192  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR PART   III. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.   "  That  we  differ  in  opinion  is  not  STRANGE." 

2.   "  How  he  came  by  it,  SHALL  BE  DISCLOSED  in  the  next 
chapter." 

OBS.  1. — EXCEPTIONS. — When  the  Pronoun  it  is  substituted  for  a  Subject 
Sentence,  the  Pronoun  precedes,  and  the  Sentence  for  which  it  stands  is 
placed  after  the  Verb. 

EXAMPLE. — "  It  is  probable  that  we  shall  not  meet  again.'1 

OBS.  2. — In  parsing  Sentences  like  the  above,  we  are  to  parse  "it" 
as  the  grammatical  Subject  of  the  Principal  Sentence,  and  the  whole 
Auxiliary  Sentence  as  explanatory  of  the  word  "it" — a  Logical  Adjunct 
of  "it."  [Sec  "Logical  Adjunct,"  p.  29.] 

^^  Let  the  Class  make  Sentences,  which  shall  be  correct  examples 
of  the  several  Notes,  Observations,  and  Piemarks,  under  Rule  1. 

EXERCISES. 
EXAMPLES   FOR   ANALYSIS   AND   PARSING. 

1.  There  is  no  union  here 'of  hearts, 

That  finds  not  here  an  end  ; 

2.  Were  this  frail  world  our  final  rest, 
Living  or  dying  none  were  blest, 

3.  Thus  star  by  star  declines, 

Till  all  are  passed  away  ; 

4.  As  morning  high  and  higher  shines, 

To  pure  and  perfect  day  : 

5.  Nor  sink  those  stars  in  empty  night, 

But  hide  themselves  in  heaven's  own  light. 

MODEL. 
"  Friend  after  friend  departs" 


•D  T?  „  f  Subject  ----  "  Friend"    \  Simple  Sentence 

PRINCIPAL  ELEMENTS  j  Pr^dicaie     «departs.»  \  Intransitive. 


*£  p%*^   \  " 


ADJUNCT  ELEMENT.  .  *  "  After  friend."  a  Phrase. 


l! 

THE  LEADER After a  Preposition. 

THE  SUBSEQUENT Friend .a  Noun. 


EXERCISES.  193 


"  Friend"  . . .  * is  an  Element  in  the  Sentence. 

Principal  Element. 

Subject. 

Word. 

Noun. 

Common. 

Third  Person. 

Singular  Number. 

Nominative  Case — according  to 
Rule  1st.  The  Subject  of  a  Sentence  must  be  in  the  Nominative  Case. 

^^  Thus  analyze  all  the  Sentences  in  the  foregoing  and  in  the  fol- 
lowing "Examples,"  and  parse  the  Subjects  of  each. 

ADDITIONAL   EXAMPLES 

1.  "Rewarding  and  punishing  actions  by  any  other  rule,  would 
appear  much  haHer  to  be  accounted  for  by  minds  formed  as  he  has 
formed  ours." — Bp.  Butler. 

2.  "  What  time  he  took  orders,  doth  not  appear." — Life  of  Butler. 

3.  "That  every  day  has  its  pains  and  sorrows,  is  universally  ex- 
perienced." 

4.  "  My  hopes  and  fears  start  up  alarmed." 
6.  "  Who  shall  tempt,  with  wandering  feet, 

The  dark,  unfathomed,  infinite  abyss?" 

6.  "Not  a  drum  was  heard,  nor  a  funeral  note. 

7.  "Not  half  of  our  heavy  task  was  done." 

8.  "  Few  and  short  were  the  prayers  we  said." 

9.  "A  chieftain's  daughter  seemed  the  maid." 
10.  "  Her  satin  snood,  her  silken  plaid, 

Her  golden  brooch,  such  birth  betrayed." 

GRAMMATIC  FALLACIES. 

REM. — Let  the  Pupils  correct  the  errors  of  the  following  Sentences, 
and  give  the  authority  for  every  criticism,  by  a  proper  reference  to 
Rule  I. ,  or  to  Notes  and  Observations  under  the  Rule. 

1.  "  His  wealth  and  him  bid  adieu  to  each  other." — Priestly. 

2.  "  My  sister  and  me  were  both  invited." 

3.  "  We  have  not  learned  whom  else  were  invited." 

4.  "  Scotland  and  thee  did  each  in  other  live." — Dryden. 

6.  "  Tell  me  in  sadness  whom  is  she  you  love." — Shakspear* 
6.  "  Him  I  most  loved  fell  at  Gettysburg." 
IT 


194  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR PART   III. 

7.  "  Them  are  the  boys  we  saw." 

8.  "  The  rustic's  sole  response  was,  '  Them's  my  sentiments.7 " 

9.  "  Has  thee  been  to  the  yearly  meeting?"     * 

IL   The  Predicate. 

(       Subject.  ~~^     Predicate.    ^  J) 

HEM.  1. — In  a  Sentence,  it  is  the  office  of  the  Predicate  to  make  the 
assertion.  It  declares  existence,  state,  change,  or  an  act,  performed  or 
received. 

REM.  2. — A  Predicate  may  consist  of  one  Word  or  of  a  combination  of 
Words.  If  of  one  Word;  it  must  be  a  Verb. 

Robert  studies. 
And,  in  addition,  it  may  have 

A  second  Verb Robert  does  study, 

A  Participle Robert  is  studying. 

An  Adjective Robert  is  studious. 

A  Noun Robert  is  a  student. 

A  Pronoun It  is  I — If  I  were  you. 

A  Preposition Its  idle  hopes  are  o'er, 

It  may  also  consist  of  two  Verbs  and  one  or  more  Participles,  etc. 

We   MIGHT   HAVE   WALKED — We   MIGHT   HAVE   BEEN   LOVED. 

'OBS.  1. — When  a  Predicate  consists  of  more  than  one  Word,  the  last 
constitutes  the  essential  part  of  the  Predicate.  The  other  Words  are 
Auxiliary,  and  are  used  to  indicate  Voice,  Mode,  Tense,  and  sometimes 
Person  and  Number.  Thus,  in  the  Sentence,  ;i  I  may  have  been  loved," 
the  Word  "loved"  is  the  essential  part  of  the  Predicate — "  been,"  is 
an  Auxiliary,  the  principal  office  of  which  is  to  denote  the  Voice; 
"  have,"  denotes  the  Tense;  "  may,"  denotes  the  Mode.  [See  p.  123.] 

OBS.  2. — Every  complete  Predicate  must  have  a  Subject,  expressed 
or  understood. 

VERBS. 

RULE  2. — A  Verb  in  Predicate  must  agree  with  its  Sub- 
ject in  Number  and  Person. 

REM. — This  rule  requires  that  the  form  of  a  Verb  be  determined  by 
its  Subject.  Strictly  speaking,  Verbs  have  no  Number  and  Person. 
The  term  is  used  to  denote  a  variation  in  the  form  of  a  Verb  to  cor- 
respond with  the  Number  and  Person  of  its  Subject.  Thus, 


VERBS — NUMBER.  195 

In  the  Singular  Number,  no  Suffix  is  used  for  the  First  Person  ;  as, 
I  walk. 

Est  or  st  is  added  for  the  Second  Person,  solemn  style. 

EXAMPLE. — Thou  walkest. 

S  is  added  for  the  Third  Person  Singular ;  as,  John  walks. 
In  the  Plural  Number,  Verbs  are  not  varied  to  denote  the  Persons 
of  their  Subjects. 

EXAMPLES. — We  walk — ye  walk — they  walk. 
NUMBER. 

NOTE  I. — One  Subject  in  the  Singular  Number  requires 
its  Verb  to  be  in  the  Singular. 

REM. — This  note  applies  alike  to  Words,  to  Phrases,  and  to  Sentences. 

EXAMPLES. 

Word  Subjects . ...  1,   u  EARTH  keeps  me  here  awhile." 

2.   "  KNOWLEDGE  reaches  or  may  reach  every  home." 

Phrase  Subjects  . .  .3.   "  MY  LEAVING  HOME  does  not  please  you." 

4.   "To  DISPUTE  THE  DOCTOR  requires  fortitude." 

Sentence  Subjects . .  5.  "  THAT   ALL  MEN  ARE  CREATED  EQUAL,   is  a   self- 
evident  truth. ' ' 
6.  "  How  HE  CAME  BACK  AGAIN,  doth  not  appear." 

^^-  Let  the  Pupils  correct  the  following 

ERRORS. 

1.  "  Where  are  you,  my  boy  ?    Here  I  are." 

2.  "  He  dare  not  call  me  coward." 

3.  "  I  wonder  at  what  thou  says  on  that  subject." 

4.  "  And  many  a  steed  in  his  stables  were  seen." 

5.  ' '  There  are  pupils  in  this  class,   whose    progress  have  been 

astonishing." 

NOTE  II. — Two  or  more  Singular  Subjects,  taken  sepa- 
rately, require  the  Verb  to  be  Singular,, 

EXAMPLES. 

Word  Subjects.  .1.   "  WILLIAM  or  WARNER  has  my  knife." 

2.  "DISEASE  or  POVERTY  follows  the  lazy  track  of  the 

sluggard." 

3 .  "  My  POVERTY,  but  not  my  WILL,  consents. ' '  — Shakspeare. 


196  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR PART    HI. 

4.  "Every  PHRASE  and  every  FIGURE  which  he  uses 
tends  to  render  the  picture  more  lively  and  com- 
plete."— Blair. 

Phrase  Subjects.  ,.5.   "  WRITING  LETTERS  or  READING  NOVELS  occupies  her 
evening  hours." 

6.  "To  BE  OR  NOT  TO  BE,  is  the  question." 

7.  "To  SHOOT  OR  BE  SHOT,  was  my  only  alternative." 
Sentence  Subjects.  .8.   "  That  my  client  aided   in  the  rescue,  or  that  he  was 

present  at  the  time  of  it,  DOES  not  APPEAR  from  the 
evidence  adduced." 

2^*-  Let  the  Pupils  correct  the  following 

ERRORS. 

1.  "  Neither  history  nor  tradition  furnish  such  information.'' 

2.  "Neither  Charles  nor  his  brother  were  qualified  to  support  such 

a  system." 

3.  "  Nor  war  nor  wisdom  yield  our  Jews  delight." 

4.  "  He  or  his  deputy  were  authorized  to  commit  the  culprit.' 

5.  "  For  outward  matter  or  event  fashion  not  the  character  within." 

*-  NOTE  III. — A   Collective  Noun,  indicating    Unity,  re- 
quires its  Verb  to  be  in  the  Singular  Number. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.   "  A  NATION  has  been  smitten." 

2.  "  The  SENATE  HAS  REJECTED  the  bill." 

3.  "  Congress  has  adjourned." 

EXCEPTION.— The  Logical  Subject  of  a  Sentence  is  sometimes  the 
Object  of  a  Phrase  used  to  qualify  the  Grammatical  Subject.  Then, 
when  the  Object  of  the  Phrase  is  plural  in  form,  and  indicates  that  the 
parts  of  which  the  number  is  composed  are  taken  severally,  the  Verb 
should  be  Plural. 

EXAMPLE. — A  part  of  the  STUDENTS  have  left. 

Here  "  students" — the  name  of  many  taken  severally — is  the 
Logical  Subject  of  "have  left."  and  requires  the  Verb  to  be  Plural, 
although  "part,"  the  Grammatical  Subject,  is  Singular. 

OBS.  3.— But  Nouns  not  Collective  are  not  varied  in  number  by  their 
Adjuncts. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.   "  The  progress  of  his  forces  was  impeded." — Allen. 

2.  The  selection  of  appropriate  examples  requires  taste. 

3.  "  All  appearances  of  modesty  are  favorable  and  pre- 

possessing. ' '  — Blair. 


VERBS — NUMBER.  197 

;  the  Pupils  correct  the  following 

ERRORS. 
t     1.   "A  series  of  exercises  in  false  grammar  are  introduced  toward 

the  end." — Frost's  Grammar. 

;     2.  "The  numher    of   the    names  were  about  one  hundred  and 
twenty. ' '  —  Ware  s  Grammar. 

3.  "  The  number  of  school  districts  have  increased  since  last  year." 

4.  "In  old  English,  this  species  of  words  were  numerous." 

5.  "  Have  the  legislature  power  to  prohibit  assemblies." 

6.  "  Above  one  half  of  them  was  cut  off  before  the  return  of  spring." 

7.  "  The  greater  part  of  their  captures  was  sacrificed." 

8.  "  While  still  the  busy  world  is  treading  o'er 

The  paths  they  trod  five  thousand  years  before." 

9.  "  Small   as  the   number  of  inhabitants   are,  their  poverty  is 

extreme." 
10.   "The  number  of  bounty-jumpers  are  enormous." 

NOTE  IV. — One  Subject  in  the  Plural  Number  should 
have  a  Verb  in  the  Plural. 

EXAMPLES. 

Ward  Subjects. ...  1.   "  WINGS  were  on  her  feet." 

2.   "They  that  seek  me  early  shall  find  me. 

EXCEPTION  1. — Nouns,  Plural  in  form,  often  constitute  the  titles  of 
books.  Such  names,  used  as  Subjects  of  Sentences,  require  their  Verbs 
to  be  Singular. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.   "  The  '  Pleasures  of  Hope'  is  a  splendid  poem." 

2.   "  The  '  Lives  of  the  Martyrs'  is  now  out  of  print." 

EXCEPTION  2. — A  Plural  Subject,  modified  by  a  Phrase  whose  Subse- 
quent is  the  Logical  Subject  of  the  Sentence,  and  Singular  in  form, 
may  have  a  Singular  Verb. 

EXAMPLE. — Two  thirds  of  my  hair  has  fallen  off. 

NOTE  Y. — Two  or  more  Subjects  connected  by  and 
require  the  Verb  to  be  in  the  Plural. 

EXAMPLES. 

Word  Subjects. . .  .1.   "The  VIVACITY  and  SENSIBILITY  of  the  Greeks  seem 
to  have  been  much  greater  than  ours." 
17* 


198  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR — PABT  HI. 

2.   "  Even  as  the  ROEBUCK  and  the  HART  are.  eaten." 
Phrase  Subjects. .  .  3.   ' '  Chewing  tobacco  and  smoking  cigars  disqualify  a  young 

man  for  mental  improvement." — Cutcheon. 
4:'""  To  spin,  to  weave,  to  knit,  and  to  sew,  were  once 

V^  a  girl's  employments; ^ 

5.      But  now  to  dress  and  catch  a  beau,  are  all  she 

calls  enj oyments. ' '  — Lynn  News. 
Sentence  Subjects. .  6.  trHeact*of  this  burgess — on  the  stone  appear, 

How  worthy  he!  how  virtuous !  and  Iww  dear!" — 
Crabbe. 

EXCEPTION  1. — Two  or  more  Singular  Subjects  so  intimately  as- 
sociated in  thought  as  to  constitute  a  logical  unity,  may  have  a  Verb 
in  the  Singular  Number. 

EXAMPLES.— 1.  "The  head  and  front  of   my  offending  hath  this 

extent."  — Shakzpeare. 

2.  "There  is  a  peculiar  force  and  beauty  in  this  figure." 
— Kames. 

EXCEPTION  2. — Two  or  more  Singular  Subjects  preceded  by  the  Ad- 
jectives each,  every,  or  no,  require  the  Verb  to  be  in  the  Singular  Number. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  "  Every  boy  and  every  girl    was    eager    for    the 
recitation." 

2.  ' '  Each  day  and  each  hour  is  fraught  with  conse- 

quences  too  momentous  for    human    contem- 
plation." 

3.  "No  fortune  and  no  condition  in  life  makes  the 

guilty  mind  happy." 

EXCEPTION  3. — Two  or  more  Singular  Subjects  connected  by  and — 
one  taken  affirmatively  and  the  other  negatively — require  the  Verb  to 
be  in  the  Singular  Number. 

EXAMPLES.  — 1 .   ' '  My  poverty,  but  not  my  will,  consents." — Shakspeare. 
2.   * '  His  moral  integrity,  and  not  his  wealth,  makes  him 
respected." 

EXCEPTION  4. — Two  or  more  Singular  Subjects,  indicating  the  same 
person  or  thing,  require  the  Verb  to  be  in  the  Singular  Number. 

EXAMPLE.—"  The  saint,  the  father,  and  the  husband  prays." 
Let  the  Pupils  correct  the  following 

ERRORS. 

1.  "Two  and  two  is  four,  and  five  is  nine.'7 


VERBS — PERSON.  199 

2.  "  The  flax  and  the  barley  was  smitten." 

3.  "  The  Mood  and  Tense  is  signified  by  the  Verb." 

.    4.   ' '  Every  word  and  every  member  have  their  due  weight  and  force." 
6.   "  Each  day  and  each  hour  bring  their  portion  of  duty." 

6.  "  No  law,  no  restraint,  no  regulation  are  required  to  keep  him 

in  bounds." 

7.  "  Prudence,  and  not  pomp,  are  the  basis  of  his  fame." 

8.  '*  Not  fear,  but  fatigue,  have  overcome  him." 

9.  * '  The  President,  not  the  Cabinet,  are  responsible  for  the  measure." 

_     NOTE  VI. — A   Collective   Noun,  indicating  Plurality, 
requires  its  Verb  to  be  in  the  Plural  Number. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  "The  PEOPLE  are  foolish,  they  have  not  known  me." 
2.  "  For  the  people  speak,  but  do  not  write." 

OBS.  1. — Collective  Nouns,  which  always  require  a  Plural  Verb,  are 
the  following  : 

Gentry — mankind — nobility — people — peasantry. 

OBS.  2. — Those  which  may  have  Verbs  in  the  Singular  or  Plural, 
according  to  the  sense,  are  the  following  : 

Aristocracy — army  — auditory — committee — congress — church — family — meet- 
ing—public— school — remnant — senate. 

PERSON.    • 

NOTE  VII. — Two  or  more  Subjects,  taken  separately 
and  differing  in  Person,  should  have  separate  Verbs,  when 
the  Verb  is  varied  to  denote  the  Person  of  its  Subject. 

EXAMPLE. — You  ARE  in  error,  or  /AM. 

OBS. — But  when  the  Verb  is  not  varied  to  denote  the  Person,  it  need 
not  be  repeated. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.    You  or  1  MUST  GO. 

2.  The  doctors  or  you  ARE  in  error. 

NOTE  VIII. — When  the  Subject  of  a  Verb  differs  in 
Person  or  Number  (or  both)  from  a  Noun  or  Pronoun  in 
Predicate,  the  Verb  should  agree  with  its  Subject  rather 
than  with  the  word  in  Predicate. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.   "  THOU  art  the  man." 

2.  CLOUDS  are  vapor. 

3.  A  iiousifi  is  an  animal. 


200  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR  —  PART   HI. 

OBS.  1.  —  The  young  Pupil  often  finds  it  difficult  to  decide  which  of 
the  two  Substantives  is  the  Subject  and  which  the  Noun  in  Predicate. 
The  following  test  will  decide  this  point  : 

When  one  term  is  generic  and  the  other  specific,  the  former  belongs  in 
Predicate  —  the  latter  is  the  Subject.  Thus,  in  Example  3,  "  animal" 
is  a  generic  term  —  "horse"  is  specific.  We  can  not  say,  an  animal  is  a 
horse,  for  not  every  animal  is  a  horse  ;  but  every  horse  is  an  animal. 
Hence,  "horse"  is  the  Subject,  and  "animal"  is  in  Predicate.  [See 
Independent  Case,  p.  85,  Obs.  5.] 

MODE   AND  TENSE. 

NOTE  IX.  —  That  Mode  and  Tense  of  a  Verb  should  be 
used  which  will  most  clearly  convey  the  sense  intended. 

OBS.  1.  —  A  Verb  used  to  denote  a  conditional  fact  or  a  contingency 
should  have  the  Subjunctive  or  the  Potential  form. 

EXAMPLES.  —  1.   "  WERE  I  Alexander,  I  would  accept  the  terms." 

2.  "So  would  I  WERE  IParmenio." 

3.  "  If  we  would  improve,  we  must  study." 

OBS.  2-—  But  if  the  condition  is  assumed  as  unquestionable,  the  Verb 
should  be  in  the  Indicative  Mode. 

EXAMPLES.  —  1.   "  If  thou  hadst  known." 

2.  If  John  has  offended  you,  he  will  make  due  apology. 


X.  —  That  form  of  the  Verb  should  be  used  which 
will  most  clearly  express  the  time  intended. 

OBS.  1.  —  In  constructing  Complex  Sentences,  the  Tense  of  the  Prin- 
cipal Sentence  does  not  necessarily  control  the  Tense  of  the  Verb  in  the 
Auxiliary  Sentence. 

EXAMPLES.  —  1.  "  I  said  in  my  haste,  all  men  are  liars." 

2.  "He  has  been  so  long  idle,  that  he  knows  not  how  to 

work.  '  ' 

3.  "Copernicus  first  demonstrated  that  the  earth  revolves 

upon  its  axis.  '  ' 

4.  '  '  Those  that  seek  me  early  shall  find  me.  '  ' 

5.  "  *  And  when  we  are  parted,  and  when  thou  art  dead, 

0,  where  shall  we  lay  thee?'  his  followers  said." 

OBS.  2.—  A  proposition  which  is  always  true,  or  which  includes  the 


VERBS MODE  AND  TENSE.  201 

past,  the  present,  and  the  future,  should  be  expressed  in  the  Present 
Tense. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  "The  lecturer  demonstrated  that  the  earth  is  round." 
2.   "Did  he  say  that  the  moon  revolves  from  east  to 

west?" 

OBS.  3. — The  variations  for  the  Potential  Mode  are  rather  variations 
of  form  than  to  indicate  distinctions  of  time — this  Mode  being  generally 
indifferent  as  to  time. 

EXAMPLE. — "  0,  would  the  scandal  vanish  with  my  life, 
Then  happy  were  TO  me  ensuing  death !" 

OBS.  4. — The  Infinitive  Present  generally  Indicates  indefinite  time 
— the  Finite  Verb  on  which  it  depends  commonly  determines  its 
Tense. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  "  I  went  TO  SEE  him." — Present  in  form,  but  Past  in 

sense. 
2.  *  *  I  shall  go  TO  SEE  him. ' '  — Present  in  form,  but  Future 


OBS.  5. — But  generally,  to  indicate  past  time,  the  Prior  Present  In- 
finitive is  used,  except  when  the  Infinitive  follows  Verbs  denoting  purpose,  ex- 
pectation, wish,  etc. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  We  ought  TO  HAVE  GONE. 

2.  I  purposed  TO  WRITE  many  days  ago. 

3.  I  expected  TO  MEET  him  yesterday. 

2^*  Let  the  Pupils  correct  the  following  » 

ERRORS. 

1.  "  I  wish  I  was  a  gipsy." 

2.  "  If  I  was  a  teacher,  I  should  give  shorter  lessons." 

3.  "Take  care  lest  the  boat  leaves  before  you  shall  get  up. 

4.  "  We  have  been  expecting  to  see  Eobert  all  last  year." 

6.  "  The  preacher  declared  that  beneficence  was  not  benevolence." 

FORM  OF  THE  VERB. 

NOTE  XL— That  form  of  a  Verb  should  be  used  which 
will  correctly  and  fully  express  the  fact  intended. 

Common  Errors.—}.   "There  let  him  lay"— Byron. 

2.   "To  you  I  fltj  f(  r  refuge."— Murray. 
Corrected.  —There  let  him  lie.— To  you  I  flee  for  refuge. 


202  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR  -  PART   III. 


the  Pupils  correct  the  following 

ERRORS. 

1.  "  Respectable  farmers  never  lay  down  in  the  field." 

2.  "I  have  no  objection  to  your  setting  down  occasionally." 

3.  "  While  I  was  talking,  Sarah  raised  up  to  leave  the  hall." 

4.  "I  expect  you  was  out  late  last  night.  '  ' 

5.  "  William  has  been  falling  trees  in  the  maple  grove." 

VOICE. 

NOTE  XII.  —  The  form  of  the  Active  Voice  is  properly- 
used  when  the  agent  of  the  action  expressed  is  made  the 
Subject  of  the  Sentence. 

EXAMPLES.  —  1.  Columbus  discovered  America. 
2.  Cassar  invaded  Gaul. 

OBS.  1.  —  The  Passive  form  is  used  when  the  Object  of  the  Act  is 
made  the  Subject  of  the  Sentence. 

EXAMPLES.  —  1.  America  was  discovered. 
2.  Gaul  was  invaded. 

OBS.  2.  —  The  Agent  of  the  Action  is  made  the  Object  of  an  Adjunct 
Phrase,  when  the  Verb  takes  the  Passive  form. 

EXAMPLES.  —  Active  Voice.  —  1.  William  HAS  SOLVED  the  problem. 

2.  Mary  GAVE  rue  a  rose. 

Passive  Voice.  —  1  .  The  problem  HAS  BEEN  SOLVED  by  William. 
«  2.  A  rose  WAS  GIVEN  [to]  me  by  Mary. 

OBS.  3.  —  Action  is  sometimes  improperly  predicated  of  a  Passive 
Subject. 

EXAMPLES. 

You  are  mistaken. 
for  .............  You  mistake. 

The  house  is  building. 
for  .............  The  house  is  being  built. 

which  means  .  .  .  .The  house  is  be\com]wff  built,  i.  e.,  people  are  at  work 

upon.it  ;  but  the  house  does  not  act. 

$£i*°  Let  the  Pupils  correct  the  following 

ERRORS. 

1.  "The  boy  has  been  found  fault  with  too  much." 

2.  "The  old  man  thought  he  was  not  looked  up  to  enough." 


VERBS — TRANSITIVE    AND    INTRANSITIVE.  203 

3.  *'  Wheat  is  now  selling  for  a  dollar  a  bushel." 

4.  "  My  predictions  are  now  fulfilling." 

5.  "  The  timbers  are  now  hewing  for  a  new  bridge." 

6.  "  Here   certain    chemical  mysteries  were   carrying  on  by  the 

engineers." 

7.  "  My  coat  is  now  making  by  the  tailor." 

TRANSITIVE    AND   INTRANSITIVE. 

NOTE  XIII. — A  Verb  which  is  necessarily  Transitive 
requires  an  Object  in  construction,  expressed  or  implied. 

OBS. — The  appropriate  Object  of  a  Sentence  should  not  be  made 
the  Object  of  a  Phrase. 

EXAMPLE. — "Transitive  Verbs  do  not  ADMIT  of  a  Preposition  after 
them." — Bullion's  Grammar,  p.  91,  edition  of  1847. 

CORRECTED. — Transitive  Verbs  do  not  admit  Prepositions  after  them 
[to  complete  the  Predicate] . 

NOTE  XIV. — A  Verb  necessarily  Intransitive  should 
not  have  an  Object,  except  by  poetic  license  or  for  other 
rhetorical  purposes. 

EXAMPLE. — "  I  sit  me  down,  a  pensive  hour  to  spend." 

EXCEPTION  1. — But  a  small  number  of  Verbs  are  used  Transitively 
or  Intransitively.  [See  p.  107,  Obs.  1.] 

EXCEPTION  2. — Some  Intransitive  Verbs  may  have  Objects  of  their 
own  signification. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.   "  I  dreamed  a  dream  that  was  not  all  a  dream." 
2.  "I  have  fought  a  good  fight. ' ' 

OBS.  1. — Some  Verbs,  commonly  used  Intransitively,  become  Trans- 
itive by  virtue  of  a  Prepositional  Prefix. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  John  goes  to  school "goes"  is  Intransitive. 

2.  John  undergoes  punishment. "  undergoes''  is  Transitive. 

3.  The  tower  looks  well ,.'"  looks"  is  Intransitive. 

4.  The  tower  overlooks  the  city. '  *  overlooks' '  is  Transitive. 

OBS  2. — In  such  examples  of  Compound  Verbs  in  Predicate,  it  is 
generally — not  always— the  Preposition  in  Composition  that  makes  the 
Verb  Transitive. 


204:  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR  —  PART   III. 

OBS.  3.  —  Verbs  made  Transitive  by  this  use  of  Prefixes,  can  not  ele- 
gantly be  used  in  the  Passive  Voice. 

EXAMPLES.  —  1.  "John  undergoes  punishment."  —  We  may  not  say 

punishment  is  undergone  by  John. 
2.  "The  tower  overlooks  the  city."  —  Nor,  the  city  is 
overlooked  by  the  tower. 

OBS.  4.  —  Prepositions  not  in  composition,  used  with  Intransitive  Verbs 
to  introduce  Adjunct  Phrases,  are  construed  with  the  Predicate  when 
the  Verb  becomes  Passive. 

EXAMPLES.  —  1.   "  The  children  laughed  at  him."  —  He  was  laughed  at 

by  the  children. 

2.   "  We  often  thought  of  our  friends  at  home."—  Our 
friends  at  home  were  often  thought  of. 

HEM.  —  Such  expressions  are  not  often  elegant,  and  should  be  avoided 
•when  the  same  thought  can  be  otherwise  expressed.    Thus, 
He  was  derided  by  the  children. 
Our  friends  at  home  were  often  remembered. 


XY.  —  A  Verb  should  not  be  used  for  its  Parti- 
ciple in  Predicate. 

EXAMPLE.  —  James  ought  not  to  have  went. 
CORRECTED.  —  James  ought  not  to  have  gone. 

NOTE  XVI.  —  A  Participle  should  not  take  the  place  of 
its  Verb. 

EXAMPLE.  —  "The  work  is  imperfect  ;  you  done  it  too  hastily." 
CORRECTED.  —  The  work  is  imperfect  ;  you  did  it  too  hastily. 

OBS.  —  Parts  of  the  Predicate  of  a  Sentence  may  be  omitted  by 
ellipsis. 

1.  The  leading  Word. 

"If[    ]  heard  aright, 
It  is  the  knell  of  my  departed  hours.'' 

2.  The  second  Word. 

"They  may  [    ]  and  should  return  to  allegiance." 

3.  The  whole  Predicate. 

"  While  [    ]  there  we  visited  the  Asylum." 
4  «  To  whom,  thus  Eve  [    ]  .  "  —Milton. 


VERBS PARSING.  205 

^Sf"  Let  the  Pupils  correct  the  following 
ERRORS. 

1.  "  Julia  is  always  chose  first." 

2.  '*  Ains worth  has  spoke  twice  and  has  wrote  once." 

3.  "  The  best  apple  was  gave  to  Anna." 

4.  "  You  ought  not  to  have  broke  that  chair/' 
6.  "I  seen  you  when  you  done  it. ' ' 

6.   "I  had  rather  have  did  it  myself." 

EXERCISES   IN   ANALYSIS    AND   PARSING. 

' '  He  maketh  the  storm  a  calm. ' ' 


He  ^    ma?teth  8torm 


calm 


r  The  Subject  [not  modified] .  "  He." 
MODIFIED  ELEMENTS.  •]  The  Modified  Predicate  . .  J  "  maket^ [to  become] 

(  The  Modified  Object "the  storm." 

(  The  Subject "He." 

PRINCIPAL  ELEMENTS.  \  The  Predicate "  maketh." 

( The  Object "storm." 

( Of  the  Subject. 


ADJUNCT  ELEMENTS.  .  -j  Of  the  Predicate [to  become]  "a calm." 

( Of  the  Object "the." 

PARSED  BY  THE  CHART. 

He Is  an  Element  in  the  Sentence — Principal  Element — 

Subject- -Word — Pronoun — Personal — Masculine — Third 
Person  —  Singular  Number — Nominative  Case. 

Maketh Is  an  Element  in  the  Sentence— Principal  Element — 

Predicate — Verb — Indicative  Mode  —  Present  Tense- 
Agreeing  with  its  Subject  ' '  He' '  in  the  Third  Person — 
Singular  Number. 

The Is  an  Adjunct  Element — Word — Adjective — Specifying 

— Pure — and  limits  "storm." 

Storm Is  an  Element  in  the  Sentence — Principal  Element — 

Object  —Word — Noun — Common — Third  Person — Sin- 
gular Number-  Objective  Case. 

[To  become]  )  Is  an  Adjunct  Element — Phrase — Adverbial — Infinitive 
a  calm. . .  J  — and  modifies  "  maketh.'' 

18 


206  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR PART   HI. 

A Is  an  Element  in  the  Phrase — Adjunct — "Word — Adjec- 
tive— Specifying — Pure — and  limits  "calm." 

Calm Is  an  Element  in  the  Phrase —Subsequent— Word — 

Noun — Common — Third  Person — Singular  Number — 
"in  Predicate"  with  become  understood. 

REM. — The  above  is  the  correct  grammatical  construction  of  the 
Sentence,  and  it  is  correctly  parsed.  But  without  the  Adjunct  Phrase 
"to  become  a  calm,"  the  word  "maketh"  could  not  properly  have 
"  storm"  as  its  Object.  "  Storm"  is  the  Object  of  the  modified  Predicate 
"inaketh  [causing  to  become]  a  calm." 

GRAMMATIC   FALLACIES. 

REM. — Let  the  Pupil  correct  the  errors  in  the  following  Sentences, 
and  give  the  authority  for  every  criticism,  by  a  proper  reference  to 
RULE  2,  or  to  NOTES  and  OBSERVATIONS  under  the  RULE. 

1.  "  The  rapidity  of  his  movements  were  beyond  example." — WdU. 

2.  "The  mechanism  of  clocks  and  watches  were  totally  unknown." 

3.  "The  Past  Tense  of  these  Verbs  are  very  indefinite  with  respect 

to  time." — Bullion's  Grammar,  p,  31.     1840. 

4.  "Everybody  are  very  kind  to  her." — Byron. 

5.  "To  study  mathematics,  require  maturity  of  mind." 

6.  "That  they  were  foreigners,  were  apparent  in  their  dress." 

7.  "Coleridge  the  poet  and  philosopher  have  many  admirers." 

8.  "No  monstrous  height,  or  length,  or  breadth  appear." — Pope. 

9.  "  Common  sense,  as  well  as  piety,  tell  us  these  are  proper." 

10.  "Wisdom  or  folly  govern  us." — Fish's  Grammar. 

11.  "  Nor  want  nor  cold  his  course  delay." — Johnson. 

12.  "Hence  naturally  arise  indifference  or  aversion  between  the  par- 

ties."— Brown  s  Estimates. 

13.  "  Wisdom,  and  not  wealth,  procurejesteem." — Ib. 

14.  "  No  company  likes  to  confess  that  they  are  ignorant." 

15.  "The  people  rejoices  in  that  which  should  cause  sorrow." 

16.  "Therein  consists  the  force  and  use  and  nature  of  language." 

17.  "  From  him  proceeds  power,  sanctification,  truth,  grace,  and  every 

other  blessing  we  can  conceive." — Calvin. 

18.  " How  is  the  Gender  and  Number  of  the  Relative  known?" 

19.  "Hill  and  dale  doth  boast  thy  blessing." — Milton. 

20.  "The  Syntax  and  Etymology  of  the  language  is  thus  spread 

before  the  learner." — Bullion's  Grammar. 

21.  "In  France  the  peasantry  goes  barefoot,  and  the  middle  sort 

makes  use  of  wooden  shoes." — Harvey. 


GRAMMATIC    FALLACIES.  207 

22.  "  While  all  our  youth  prefers  her  to  the  rest." — Waller. 

23.  "  A  great  majority  of  our  authors  is  defective  in  manner." — J. 

Brown. 

24.  "  Neither  the  intellect  nor  the  heart  are  capable  of  being  driven." 

25.  "  Nor  he  nor  I  are  capable  of  harboring  a  thought,  against  your 

peace. " —  Wdlpole. 

26.  * '  Neither  riches  nor  fame  render  a  man  happjr.' ' — Day's  Grammar. 

27.  "I  or  thou  art  the  person  who  must  undertake  the  business." — 

Murray. 

28.  "The  quarrels  of  lovers  is  a  renewal  of  love." 

29.  '  *  Two  or  more  sentence^  united  together  is  called  a  compound 

sentence. ' '  — Day  s  Grammar. 

30.  "  If  I  was  a  Greek,  I  should  resist  Turkish  despotism." 

31 .  "I  can  not  say  that  I  admire  this  construction,  though  it  be 

much  used." — Priestly  s  Grammar,  p.  172 

32.  "It  was  observed  in  Chap.   3,  that  the  disjunctive  or  had  a 

double  use." — Churchill's  Grammar. 

33.  "I  observed  that  love  constituted  the  whole  character  of  God." 

34.  "A  stranger  to  the  poem  would  not  easily  discover  that  this  was 

verse. " — Murray. 

35.  "Had  I  commanded  you  to  have  done  this,  you  would  thought 

hard  of  it." — J.  Brawn. 

36.  "I  found  him  better  than  I  expected  to  have  found  him." 

37.  "  There  are  several  faults  which  I  intended  to  have  enumerated." 

38.  "An  effort  is  making  to  abolish  the  law." 

39.  "The  Spartan  admiral  was  sailed  to  the  Hellespont." — Goldsmith. 

40.  "  So  soon  as  he  was  landed,  the  multitude  thronged  about  him." 

41.  "  Which  they  neither  have  nor  can  do." — Barclay. 

42.  "  For  you  have  but  mistook  me  all  the  while." — Shakspeare. 

43.  "Who  would  not  have  let  them  appeared." — Stede. 

44.  "  You  were  chose  probationer." — Spectator. 

45.  "  Had  I  known  the  character  of  the  lecture,  I  would  not  have 

went. ' ' 

46.  "They  don't  ought  to  do  \i.''—Waikins. 

47.  "Had  I  ought  to  place  '  wive  in  Predicate  with  '  makes?'  " — Pupil. 

48.  "  Whom  they  had  sat  at  defiance  " — Bolingbroke. 

49.  "  Whereunto  the  righteous  fly  and  are  safe." — Barclay. 

50.  "  She  sets  as  a  prototype,  for  exact  imitation." — Rash. 

REM. — After  correcting  the  above  examples,  the  Pupil  should 
analyze  and  parse  them — using  the  MODEL  given  on  p.  205,  or  those 
on  pp.  183-4.  i 


208  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR — PART   III 


III.   The  Object  of  a  Sentence. ' 

The  Objec 
in  the  Objective  Case. 


"  RULE  3. — The  Object  of  an  action  or  relation  must  be 


/"""""  """Ny —  AA  A 

Subject               Y              Predicate.                                Object 
<s A^_ __ V^          X 

EXAMPLES.  — 1 .   ' '  Virtue  secures  happiness. ' ' 

2.  "  Him  from  my  childhood  I  have  known." 

3.  "  Them  that  honor  me,  I  will  honor." 

OBS.  1.— The  Object  of  a  Sentence  may  be— 

1.  A  Noun **  Now  twilight  lets  her  curtain  down, 

2.  A  Pronoun ....        And  pins  it  with  a  star. ' ' 

3.  A  Phrase "I  doubted  his  having  been  a  soldier." 

4.  A  Sentence . . . ."  But  Brutus  says,  he  was  ambitious" 

(1.)    OBJECT   WORD. 

1  {  Virtue  secures  happiness. ' ' 

C        Virtue        jf       secures         Y^     happiness        j 


FORM  OF  THE  OBJECT. 

OBS.  2.  —  The  forms  of  Nouns  do  not  distinguish  the  Objective  Case 
from  the  Nominative  or  Subjective. 


I.  —  Pronouns  that  are  varied  in  form  to  denote 
the  Case,  should  have  their  appropriate  forms  for  the 
Objective. 

EXAMPLES.  —  1.   "  Them  that  honor  me,  I  will  honor." 
2.   "  And  must  I  leave  ihec,  Paradise  ?" 

^&~  Let  the  Pupils  correct  the  following 

ERRORS. 

1.  "They  will  not  go  without  she  and  I." 

2.  '  '  Who  did  Gertrude  marry  ?'  ' 

3.  "  Vain  pomp  and  glory  of  the  world,  I  hate  ye." 

4.  "I  can  not  tell  who  I  saw  there." 

5.  "I  took  it  to  be  he  who  we  had  visited  at  Homer." 

EEM.  —  The  Personal  Pronouns  and  the  Relative  and  the  Interrogative 
who  are  the  only  Substantive  Words  that  distinguish  the  cases  by  their 
forms.  [See  Declension  of  Pronouns,  page  89.]  Hence, 


OBJECT   OF  A   SENTENCE.  209 

OBS.  3.— In  constructing  Sentences,  special  attention  is  required  in 
giving  to  the  Object  of  a  Sentence  its  appropriate  position. 

POSITION  OF  THE  OBJECT. 

NOTE  II. — In  position,  the  Object  of  a  Sentence  com- 
monly follows  the  Predicate. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  "  Virtue  SECURES  happiness.'1 

2.   "  The  king  of  shadows  LOVES  a  shining  mark." 

EXCEPTION  1. — By  the  poets,  and  for  rhetorical  effect,  the  Object  is 
often  placed  before  the  Predicate 

EXAMPLES. — 1. — "  Him,  from  my  childhood,  I  HAVE  KNOWN." 
2. — "  New  ills  that  latter  stage  AWAIT." 

EXCEPTION  2. — A  Relative  Pronoun,  being  the  Object  of  a  Sentence,  is 
placed  before  its  Predicate. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.   "  Mount  the  horse  which  I  HAVE  CHOSEN  for  you." 
2.   "  We  serve  a  Monarch  whom  we  LOVE — 
A  God  whom  we  ADORE." 

Two  OR  MORE  OBJECTS. 

OBS.  4. — A  Sentence  may  have  two  or  more  Objects  when  they  are 
connected  in  construction  by  Conjunctions,  expressed  or  implied. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.   "Goo  CREATED  the  heaven  and  the  earth." 
2.  "  Now  twilight  LETS  her  curtain  down, 
And  PINS  it  with  a  star." 

EEM. — These  are  Compound  Sentences.  In  Sentence  1,  "heaven" 
and  "earth"  are  Objects  of  the  same  Verb,  "  created."  In  Sentence  2, 
*'  curtain"  is  the  Object  of  "  lets,"  and  "  it"  is  the  Object  of  *4  pins." 

OBS.  5. — The  Objects  of  a  Compound  Sentence  sometimes  consist  of 
different  Words,  indicating  the  same  being  or  thing. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.   "By  this  dispensation,  we  HAVE  LOST  a  neighbor,  a 

friend,  a  brother." 

2.   "Thus  she  addressed  the  Father  of  gods,  and  King  of 
men." 

OBS.  6. — But  one  Word  used  to  limit  the  signification  of  another, 
can  not  be  in  the  same  construction  ;  and  hence,  the  two  Words  are 
not  Objects  of  the  same  Verb,  unless  they  are  compounded  and  parsed 
as  one  Element. 

18* 


210  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR — PART   HI. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.   "We  visited  NAPLES,  the  home  ef  our  childhood." 
2.  Have  you  seen  COLERIDGE,  the  philosopher  and  poet  ? 

REM. — "Home"  is  a  Noun,  used  to  describe  "Naples,"  not  as  an 
Adjective,  but  as  an  equivalent  name  of  the  same  place. 

"  Philosopher"  and  "poet"  are  Substantive  appellations  of  the  man, 
"Coleridge." 

[See  "Logical  Adjuncts"  and  "Independent  Case,"  p.  85,  Obs.  2,  3.] 

OBS.  7. — The  Verbs  appoint,  call,  choose,  constitute,  create,  dub,  elect,  make, 
name,  and  proclaim,  sometimes  have  two  Objects — one  direct,  and  the 
other  indirect. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  They  named  him  JOHN. 
They 

2.  The  State  Society  elected  North  PRESIDENT, 

3.  And  chose  Hoose  SECRETARY. 

REM. — In  Example  1,  "him"  is  the  direct  Object — "  John"  the  remote 
Object ;  and  is,  logically  considered,  a  part  of  the  Predicate — a  title 
acquired  by  the  action  expressed  by  the  Verb.  The  Verbs  above  given 
do  not,  in  such  examples,  express  the  full  Predicate,  nor  have  we  Verbs 
that  can,  unless,  perhaps  in  the  following  example  : 
' '  They  dubbed  him  KNIGIIT.  ' ' 

Equivalent. — "They  KNIGHTED  him" 

OBS.  8.— A  Verb  which,  in  the  Active  Voice,  is  followed  by  a  direct 
and  a  remote  Object,  retains  the  remote  Object  as  a  part  of  the  Passive 
Predicate. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  He  is  named  John. 

2.  North  was  elected  President. 

REM.— This  construction  is  analogous  to  that  o/  a  Substantive  in 
Predicate  with  a  Neuter  Verb. 

Thou  art  Peter — He  is  John. 

Thou  art— who  ? — Peter.  He  is  named  John.  The  word  * '  Peter' ' 
completes  the  Predicate  5  the  words  "named  John"  complete  the 
Predicate. 

OBS.  9.— The  construction  noticed  in  Obs.  7  should  be  carefully  dis- 
tinguished from  that  in  which  a  Verb  is  followed  by  two  Objects — one 
of  the  Verb  and  the  other  of  a  Preposition  suppressed. 

EXAMPLE. — "They  carried  the  child  home." 


OBJECT   OF   A    SENTENCE.  211 


HEM. — "Child"  is  the  name  of  a  young  being,  and,  in  this  connec- 
tion, is  the  proper  object  of  "carried."  But  "home"  is  a  name 
applied  to  a  habitation,  a  building,  and  "they"  probably  did  not 
"carry"  that.  They  carried  the  child  to  some  place — and  that  place 
was  its  home. 

1.  "He  fold  ME  his  history." — He  related  TO  ME  his  history. 

2.  "  I  asked  him  his  OPINION." 

3.  "Our  dear  Joachim  has  asked  me  for  my  opinion." — Michclet's 

Luther. 

4.  "  He  gave  ME  a  book." — He  gave  a  book  to  me. 

KEM  — In  parsing  examples  like  the  above,  the  ellipsis  should  be 
supplied.  Thus,  "  to  his  home"  is  an  Adjunct  of  "  carried."  Hence, 
an  Adverbial  Phrase. 

"  Home,"  as  a  Representative  of  the  Phrase,  is  an  Adverb. 

"Home,"  as  an  Element  in  the  Phrase,  is  a  Noun — Object  of  to 
understood.  Hence,  in  the  Objective  Case.  [See  p.  172.] 

Oss.  10.-— The  Verbs  make,  esteem,  regard,  consider,  elect,  bid,  dare,  feel, 
hear,  see,  and  some  others,  are  often  followed  by  an  Infinitive  Phrase, 
having  its  Preposition  (and  sometimes  the  Verb)  understood. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  "  Lorenzo,  these  are  thoughts  that  make*  man  MAN." 

These  are  thoughts  that  make  man  [TO  BE]  MAN. 
2.   "  Teach  them  OBEDIENCE  to  the  laws." 

Teach  them  [TO  YIELD]  OBEDIENCE  to  the  laws. 

EEM.— In  examples  like  these,  the  second  Noun  or  Pronoun  is  the 
Object  of  the  Verb  understood  or  used  in  Predicate  with  it.  Thus, 
"man"  is  used  in  Predicate  with  "to  be,"  or  "to  become,"  imder- 
stood,  and  "obedience"  is  the  Object  of  "yield." 

EXAMPLES.— 1.  "  Intemperance  makes  a  man  [to  become]  a  fool." 

2.  "He  maketh  the  storm  [    ]  a  calm. ' '    [See  Diagram, 
p.  205.] 

NOTE  III. — Intransitive  Verbs  have  no  Object. 
EXAMPLES. — I  sit. — Thou  art. — He  sleeps. 

*  The  word  make  is  generally  thus  used,  when  it  signifies  "  to  cause  to  be,"  "to 
cause  to  become." 


212  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR  —  PART   III. 

—  OBS.  1.  —  But  some  Verbs,  commonly  used  Intransitively,  sometimes 
have  Objects  of  their  own  signification. 

EXAMPLES.  —  1.  I  have  fought  a  good  fight.  —  2.  We  ran  a  race. 
3.  He  sleeps  the  sleep  of  death 


IV.  —  A  few  Verbs  may  be  used  Transitively  or 
Intransitively. 

EXAMPLES.—  1.  The  sun  set  in  the  west. 

2.  He  set  the  inkstand  on  the  table 

3.  Cool  blows  the  wind. 

4.  The  wind  blows  the  dust. 

POSITION  OF  THE  OBJECT. 

-  OBS.  1.  —  When  a  Transitive  Verb  is  followed  by  two  Objects  —  one, 
the  Object  of  the  Verb,  and  the  other  the  Object  of  a  Preposition  sup- 
pressed, the  Object  of  the  *  Preposition  is  placed  between  the  Verb  and 
its  Object. 

EXAMPLES.  —  1.  "Mary  gave  me  a  ROSE." 
2.   "  Bring  home  my  BOOKS." 

REM.  —  "Me"  is  an  abridged  Adjunct  of  "gave"  [see  Adverbs  by 
Representation,  p.  23],  and  is  placed  next  its  Verb  according  to  the 
Rule  for  the  Position  of  Adverbs.  [See  p.  259.] 

EXCEPTION.  —  When  the  indirect  Object  suggests  the  important 
thought,  or  when  it  is  the  emphatic  word  in  the  Sentence,  it  is  placed 
after  the  direct  Object. 

EXAMPLE.'  —  "They  carried  the  CHILD  home" 

OBS.  2.—  But,  when  the  Preposition  is  expressed,  the  direct  Object  is 
placed  next  its  Verb. 

EXAMPLE.  —  "Mary  GAVE  a  rose  to  me." 

OBJECT   PHRASE. 

NOTE  Y.  —  Transitive  Verbs  may  have,  as  their  Objects, 
Substantive  Phrases. 

EXAMPLES.  —  1.  *'  I  doubted  his  having  been  a  soldier.1 


doubted     J        having  been  a  soUn 

LJ r1 i 

*»J      I J 


OBJECT   PHKASE.  213 

I  doubted— what  ?  Not  "  his,"  nor  "  having,"  nor  "  been,"  nor  "  a" 
nor  "soldier"  but  the  fact  asserted  by  the  whole  Phrase—  "His  having 
been  a  soldier. ' ' 

2.  "His  being  a  minister,  prevented  his  rising  to  civil 
power. ' '     Prevented — what  ? 

OBS.  1.  Object  Phrases  are  generally  of  the  Participial  Form,  Prepo- 
sitional and  Infinitive  Phrases  being  commonly  used  as  Adjuncts,  and 
Independent  Phrases  as  Logical  Adjuncts.  [See  p.  20,  Obs.  1 ;  see  also 
Clark's  Analysis,  p.  115.] 

OBS.  2. — But  Prepositional,  Infinitive,  and  Independent  Phrases  may 
be  used  technically  as  Objects  of  Transitive  Verbs. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  " The  maniac  repeated,  'on  a  bed  of  green  sea-flowers,' 

during  the  interview." 

2.  The  damsel  could  not  say  "to  be  loving,"  without  em- 
barrassment. 

OBS.  3. — Infinitive  Phrases  following  Verbs,  commonly  indicate  pur- 
pose or  cause,  and  serve  to  limit  the  signification  or  application  of  Verbs. 
Such  are  properly  called  Adverbs. 
EXAMPLES. — 1.  Pupils  are  allowed  to  read. 

2.  Pupils  appear  to  read. 

3.  Pupils  assemble  to  read. 

4.  Pupils  ought  to  read. 
6.  Pupils  begin  to  read. 
6.  Pupils  wish  to  read. 

HEM.  1. — In  Sentences  1,  2,  3,  and  4,  the  Phrase  "to  read"  is  plainly 
Adverbial,  the  Predicate  Verbs  being  necessarily  Intransitive. 

In  the  analysis  of  Sentences  like  5  and  6,  two  sentiments  obtain 
with  prominent  grammarians — 1,  that  "  to  read"  is  the  Object  of 
" begin"  and  "wish"  [see  Welch,  p.  205,  and  others];  2,  that 
"begin' '  and  "  wish' '  are  here  Intransitive  Verbs.  [See  Brown,  p.  496, 
and  others.]  On  this  point,  Brown  is  manifestly  in  error.  Most 
Transitive  Verbs  may  have  as  their  Objects  Infinitive  Phrases.  [See 
Examples  5  and  6.] 

OBS.  4. — The  Transitive  Verbs  having  Objects  expressed,  are  often 
limited  by  Infinitive  Phrases. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  The  teacher  REQUESTED  William  to  recite. 
2.  I  BELIEVE  the  milkman  to  be  honest. 

EEM.  2. — "To  recite1  is  a  Phrase,  Adjunct  of  "requested;"  it  limits 
the  request.  "William"  is  the  Object  of  the  modified  Predicate 
"requested"  to  recite. 


214:  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR PART    III. 

"  To  be  honest"  is  a  Phrase  Adjunct  of  "  believe  ;"  milkman  is  the 
Object  of  the  modified  Predicate  "  believe  to  be  honest." 

OBS.  5. — This  construction  should  be  carefully  distinguished  from 
that  in  which  the  Infinitive  Phrase  is  Adjunct  of  the  Object. 

EXAMPLES.— 1.  The  general* gave  the  ORDER  to  fire. 

Y  order  ] 


2.  The  subordinate  manifested  a  DISPOSITION  to  dictate. 

3.  Idle  pupils  manifest  little  anxiety  to  improve. 

4.  "  "We  have  our  various  duties  to  perform." 

HEM.  3. — "  To  fire"  limits  "order;"  hence,  an  Adjective. 

"To  dictate"  limits  "disposition  ;"  hence,  an  Adjective. 

^^*Let  the  Pupil  place  Sentences  2  and  3  in  the  given  Diagram ; 
and  vary  the  Diagram  for  4. 

OBJECT   SENTENCE. 

NOTE  VI. — Many  Transitive  Verbs  have  as  their  Objects 
Substantive  Auxiliary  Sentences. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  " But  Brutus  says  he  was  ambitious" 

2.  "The   ancient  Russians  believed  that  their  northern 
mountains  encompassed  the  globe. ' ' 


3.  "  Can  you  tell  where  my  Highland  laddie  s  gone?" 

4.  "He  hastily  demanded  why  I  came."" 

5.  "The  village  alf  declared  how  much  he  Jmeiv." 

6.  "  Did  you  but  know  to  whom  I  gave  the  ring" 

REM.  1. — The  Pupil  will  notice  that  Sentences  used  as  Indirect  Objects, 
are  introduced  by  a  Word  or  a  Phrase  which  constitutes,  logically,  the  essen- 
tial part  of  the  Object.  Thus  in  sentence  2,  "that"  stands  for  the  whole 
Proposition. 

"  Their  northern  mountains  encompassed  the  globe." 
"  The  ancient  Russians  believed  that" 
"  My  Highland  laddie  has  gone" — can  you  tell  where  9 
"  I  gave  the  ring" — did  you  but  know  to  whom. 


OBJECT    SENTENCE. 


215 


HEM.  2. — Still  we  are  to  regard  the  entire  Auxiliary  Sentence  as  the 
Grammatical  Object  of  the  Principal  Predicate. 

OBS  2. — This  construction  is  to  be  carefully  distinguished  from 
Complex  Sentences,  in  which  the  Object  Sentences  are  introduced  by 
the  Double  Relative  what. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  "  But  here  I  stand  and  tell  what  I  do  know.1' 

2.  "  You  have  done  what  you  should  be  sorry  for." 

EEM.  3. — Here,  "  what  I  do  know"  is  the  modified  Object  of  "tell." 
[See  Diagram,  p.  43.] 

OBS.  3. — By  another  construction,  Auxiliary  Sentences  are  placed 
after  Predicates  of  Principal  Sentences — not  as  Objects,  but  as  Adjuncts 
of  purpose,  cause,  etc. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  The  pupil  studies  that  he  may  improve. 

2.  "  And  I  am  glad  t/iat  he  has  lived  thus  long ; 

3.  And  [    ]  glad  that  he  has  gone  to  his  reward," 

OBS.  4. — Another  construction  makes  the  Auxiliary  Sentence  a 
Logical  Adjunct  of  a  Substantive. 

EXAMPLES. — "It  is  possible  that  we  have  /• rj 


erred." 

[See  "Independent  Case,"  and  "Inde 
pendent  Sentence,"  in  place.] 

"  We  had  strong  suspicions  that  Warner  had  the  ring." 
hid        1    suspicions^ 


possible 


HEM. — What  were  our  suspicions? 

Ans.  That  Warner  had  the  ring. 

Hence,  "  that  Warner  had  the  ring,"  is  a  logical  Adjunct  of  "sus- 
picions." and  in  the  Diagram  is  placed  under,  but  not  attached  to, 
"suspicions." 

OBS.  6. — Sometimes  a  Principal  Sentence  is' thrown  in  between  the 
parts  of  an  Objective  Sentence. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  "  Whose  charms,  me  thought,  could  never  fade." 

2.  "  This  explanation,  I  doubt  not,  will  satisfy  him." 

3.  "  But  confidence,  he  added,  is  a  plant  of  slow  growth." 


216  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR PART   III. 

THE  OBJECTS  OF  PHEASES. 

REM. — Action  is  expressed  by  Verbs  and  by  Participles.  Relation  is 
expressed  by  Prepositions.  Hence, 

OBS.  1.— The  Object  of  a  Verb  or  of  a  Participle,  is  the  Object  of  an 
Action,  and  must  be  in  the  Objective  Case. 

EXAMPLES. 

Infinitive  Verb. — "I  came  to  BURY  Ccesar,  not  to  PRAISE  him.'' 
Participle. — "  He  could  not  avoid  GIVING  offense." 

-    OBS.  2. — The  Object  of  a  Preposition  is  the  Object  of  a  Relation,  indi- 
cated by  the  Preposition,  and  should  be  in  the  Objective  Case. 

EXAMPLES — 1.  "  FOR  me  your  tributary  stores  combine." 

2.  "  The  boy  stood  ON  the  burning  deck, 

Whence  all  BUT  him  had  fled." 

3.  "THAN  whom,  Satan  EXCEPT,  none  higher  sat." 

NOTE  I. — Pronouns  in  the  Objective  Case  should  have 
their  appropriate  forms. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  "  Did  you  but  know  to  ivhom  I  gave  the  ring." 
2.  "I  call  to  thee  with  all  my  voice." 

EXCEPTION  1. — The  Possessive  form  of  Nouns  and  Pronouns  is  rarely 
used  in  the  Objective  Case. 

EXAMPLE.— John  is  a  friend  of  mine.     [See  p.  90.] 

EXCEPTION  2. — Adjunct  Sentences,  introduced  by  the  Conjunctions  as, 
before,  than,  till,  etc.,  are  often  contracted  into  Adjunct  Phrases — the 
Subjects  of  the  Sentences  becoming  the  Objects  of  Phrases,  often  with- 
out a  corresponding  change  of  form.  [See  page  172.] 

OBS. — The  Objects  of  Phrases  and  Sentences  may  be  Words,  Phrases, 
or  Sentences. 

OBJECTS  OF  SENTENCES. 

g^**  Let  the  following  Sentences  be  analyzed  by  the  CHART,  and 
parsed :  % 

,    Word  Objects. — 1 .  "There  thou  shalt  FIND  my  cousin  Beatrice. ' '—Shaks. 

2.  "  His  daring  foe  securely  him  DEFIED." — Milton. 

3.  '  *  The  broom  its  yellow  leaf  HATH  SHED.  "—Langharn. 

4.  "  Did  I  REQUEST  thee.  Maker,  from  my  clay, 

To  mold  me  man  T'—MiUon. 


OBJECTS    OF    PHRASES.  217 

Phrase  Objects. — 5.   ' '  We  may  AVOID  talking  nonsense  on  these  subjects. ' ' 

6.   "I  DOUBTED  their  having  it." 
Sentence  Objects.— 7.   "  They  SAY,  '  This  shall  be,1  and  it  is." 

8.  "  Athens  FOUND  that  neither  art  nor  science  could  avail 
against  depravity  of  morals." 

11.  OBJECTS  OF  PHRASES — INFINITIVE. 

Word  Objects. — 9.  "  How  I  love  to  SEE  thee, 

Golden,  evening  sum" 

10.  "I  come  to  BURY  Ccesar,  not  to  PRAISE  him." 

Phrase  Objects. — 11.   "He  endeavored  to  PREVENT  our  being  tossed  about 
by  every  wind  of  doctrine. ' ' 

12.  "It   is  difficult   to  DOUBT  his  having  seen  military 

service. ' ' 

Sentence  Objects. — 13.   "  This  goes  to  PROVE  wliat  strange  creatures  we  are" 
14.   "The  Governor  commands  me  to  SAY,  that  he  hat 
no  further  business  with  the  Senate. ' ' 

PARTICIPIAL. 

Word  Objects. — 15.   "  SCALING  yonder  peak,  I  saw  an  eagle." 

16.  "  FINDING  fault.,  never  does  any  good." 
Phrase  Objects. — 17.  "  By  OPPOSING  your  going  to  college,  your  father 

abridged  your  usefulness. ' ' 

Sentence  Objects. — 18.  '  *  The  ceremonies  concluded  by  the  doctor' s  SAYING, 
*  Gentlemen,  we  will  resume  our  studies  at  seven  to- 
morrow.' " 

PREPOSITIONAL. 

Word  Objects. -^19.  "  There  came  TO  the  beach  a  poor  exile  OF  Erin.1* 

20.  "  You  are  a  much  greater  loser  by  his  death." 

21.  "  The  nation  crowned  with  laurels  veterans,  scarred 

in  service." 

22.  "He  suffers  for  them  that  have  no  hope." 

Maturin's  Sermons. 

Phrase  Objects. — 23.  "In  the  matter  OF  making  and  receiving  presents, 
much  discretion  is  required." 

24.  ' '  I  had  no  knowledge  OF  there  being  any  connection 

between  them." — Stone. 

25.  "To  follow  foolish  precedents  and  wink 

With  both  our  eyes,  is  easier  THAN  to  think.19 
Sentence  Objects. — 26,  "  And  all  the  air  a  solemn  stillness  holds — 
SAVI;  where  the  beetk  wheels  his  droning  flight." 

10 


218  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR  —  PART  HI. 

QUESTIONS    FOR   REVIEW. 


TA.QB. 


208.  Repeat  RULE  III. — Make  examples  to  illustrate  it. 

The  Object  of  a  Sentence  may  consist  of  what  ? See  Obs.  1. 

What  Object  Words  are  distinguished  by  their  forms  ?..See  Obs.  2. 
What  is  the  usual  Position  of  the  Object  ? 

209.  Mention  the  Exceptions,  and  give  Examples. 

When  may  two  or  more  words  be  Objects  of  the  same  Verb  ? 

Make  Sentences  to  illustrate  Obs.  4  and  5. 

When  may  they  not  both  be  Objects  of  a  preceding  Verb  ? 

Make  Sentences  to  illustrate  Obs.  6. 

What  Verbs  may  have  direct  and  indirect  Objects  ? 

210.  Make  Sentences  to  illustrate  Obs  7. 
What  Passive  Verbs  may  have  Objects  ? 
Make  Sentences  to  illustrate  Obs.  8. 
Make  Sentences  to  illustrate  Obs.  9. 

211.  Make  Sentences  to  illustrate  Obs.  10. 

212.  What  Verbs  have  no  Objects  ? See  Note  IV. 

Make  Sentences  to  illustrate  Obs.  I. 

What  Verbs  may  be  used  Transitively  or  Intransitively  ? 

Two  Objects,  one  of  a  Verb  and  the  other  of  a  Preposition  sup- 
pressed, have  what  relative  positions  9 

Make  Sentences  to  illustrate  Obs.  2. 

What  position  have  the  Objects  when  the  Preposition  is  ex- 
pressed ? 

Make  Sentences  to  illustrate  Obs.  3. 

213.  What  Phrases  may  be  Objects  of  Sentences  ? 
Make  Sentences  to  illustrate  Obs.  1. 

215.  Make  a  Sentence  having  a  Sentence  Object. 

GRAMMATIC   FALLACIES. 

y$&*  Let  the  Pupil  correct  the  following  Sentences,  giving  the  proper 
authority  for  each  correction  : 

1.   "  Let  none  touch  it  but  they  who  are  clean." — Sales  Koran. 
'2.   "  None  but  thou,  0  mighty  prince,  canst  avert  the  blow." 

3.  "  None  but  thou  can  aid  us  " 

4.  "  No  mortal  man,  8ave  he,  had  e'er  survived  to  say  he  saw."-^ 

Scott. 
6.  "We  are  alone  ;  here's  none  but  thee  and  I." — Shdkfpeare. 

6.  "  Good  Margaret,  run  thee  into  the  parlor." — Shakspeare. 

7.  "  He  loves  he  knows  not  who" — Addison. 


PRONOUNS  -  PERSONAL.  21  9 

PRONOUNS. 

RULE  4.  —  A  Prononn  must  agree  with  its  Antecedent 
in  Person  and  Number. 


I.  —  A   Pronoun   should  have   a  Singular   form 
when  it  represents  one  Singular  Antecedent. 
EXAMPLE.  —  Henry  was  quite  well  when  I  last  saw  HIM. 

NOTE  II.  —  A  Pronoun  should  have  a  Singular  form 
when  it  represents  two  or  more  Singular  Antecedents 
taken  separately. 

EXAMPLE.  —  "  The  oil  of  peppermint,  or  any  other  volatile  oil,  dropped 
on  paper,  will  soon  evaporate  ;  no  trace  of  IT  will  be  left." 

NOTE  III.  —  A  Pronoun  should  have  a  Singular  form 
when  it  represents  a  Collective  Noun  indicating  Unity. 

EXAMPLE.  —  I  found  the  school  more  orderly  than  it  had  been  under 
ray  administration. 

^®-  Let  the  Pupils  correct  the  following 

ERRORS. 

1.  Let  any  pupil  put  this  in  Diagram  if  they  can. 

2.  If  Clara  or  Anna  will  do  it,  they  shall  be  complimented. 

3.  "The  congregation  dispersed  less  orderly  than  it  had  assembled." 

4.  Each  pupil  may  select  a  sentence  for  themselves 

5.  "  Every  true  believer  has  the  spirit  of  God  in  them.''  —  Barclay. 

NOTE  IV.  —  A  Pronoun  should  have  a  Plural  form  when 
it  has  one  Antecedent  indicating  Plurality. 

EXAMPLE.  —  Few  men  are  as  wise  as  THEY  might  be. 

NOTE  Y.  —  A  Pronoun  should  have  a  Plural  form  when 
it  has  two  or  more  Antecedents  taken  collectively. 

EXAMPLE.  —  Mary  and  Anna  always  accomplish  what  THEY  undertake. 

NOTE  YI.  —  A  Pronoun  should  have  a  Plural  form  when 
its  Antecedent  is  a  Collective  Noun  indicating  Plurality. 

EXAMPLE.  —  The  committee  were  unanimous  in  every  measure  which 
they  discussed. 


220  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR  —  PART    III. 


the  Pupils  correct  the  following 

ERRORS  . 

1.  "No  people  can  be  free  unless  it  is  virtuous." 

2.  "I  sold  my  horse  and  buggy  for  less  than  it  cost." 

3.  "A  people  may  be  ignorant  and  happy;   but  it  can  never  be 

ignorant  and  prosperous  " 

4.  "  Do  not  make  so  many  erasures  in  your  composition  ;  it  makes  it 

look  bad/y  .  '  '  —  Preceptress. 

PERSONAL    PRONOUNS. 

NOTE  VII.  —  The  form  of  a  Personal  Pronoun  should 
indicate  its  Person  and  dumber. 

OBS.  1.  —  The  Pronouns  /and  we  denote  the  person  or  persons  speak- 
ing or  writing  —  "  I,"  Singular  —  "  we,"  Plural.  But, 

OBS.  2.  —  "  We"  is  used  in  the  Singular  by  Editors  and  Emperors, 

EXAMPLES.  —  "  We,  Nicholas  I  ,  Emperor  of  all  the  Russias  " 

"  We  shall  present  ourself  as  candidate  at  the  next 

election." 

OBS.  3.  —  Thou  is  used  in  Solemn  Style  to  denote  a  person  addressed. 
EXAMPLE.  —  "  Thou  didst  weave  this  verdant  roof." 

OBS.  4.  —  Ton  was  formerly  limited  to  the  Second  Person  Plural,  but 
is  now  used  in  the  Second  Person  Singular  and  Plural.  Its  Verb  is 
commonly  in  the  Plural  form. 

EXAMPLES.  —  1.   "  You  are  come  too  late." 

2.  You  have  accomplished  your  object. 
OBS.  5.  —  But  it  has  sometimes  a  Singular  form. 

EXAMPLES.  —  1.  "  When  you  was  here  comforting  me."  —  Pope. 

2.  "  Why  was  you  glad  ?"  —  Boswett's  Life  of  Johnson. 

OBS.  6.—  The  Pronoun  "it"  often  has  an  Indefinite  or  undetermined 
Antecedent  ;  and  may  then  represent  any  Gender,  Person,  or  Number. 

EXAMPLES.  —  1  .   *  '  It  snows.  ''  —  2  .   "  IT  was  my  father.  '  ' 

3.  "IT  was  the  students." 

4.  "A  pleasant  thing  IT  is,  to  behold  the'  sun." 

NOTE  VIII.  —  Pronouns  of  different  Persons,  used  in  the 
same  connection,  should  have  their  appropriate  position. 

OBS.  1.—  The  Second  Person  is  placed  first—  the  Third  next,  and  the 
First  last. 


PRONOUNS — RELATIVE.  221 

EXAMPLE. —  You  and  James  and  /have  been  invited. 

OBS.  2 . — But  when  a  fault  is  confessed,  this  order  is  sometimes  re- 
versed. 

EXAMPLE. — u  /and  my  people  have  sinned." 

OBS.  3. — This  position  obtains  also  when  we  acknowledge  a  defeat 
or  a  common  calamity. 

EXAMPLE. — "  Then  I  and  you  and  all  of  us  fell  down, 

Whilst  bloody  Treason  flourished  over  us." 

NOTE  IX. — The  Pronoun  "  them"  should  not  be  used 
Adjectively. 

Incorrect. — Bring  me  them  books. 
Correct. — Bring  me  those  books. 

RELATIVE   PRONOUNS. 

OBS.  1. — A  Relative  Pronoun  always  performs  a  double  office,  and  is 
used  Substantively  and  Conjunctively. 

EXAMPLE. — He  who  studies,  will  improve. 

"Who"  relates  to  "he,"  and  is  the  Subject  of  studies;  hence,  a 
Substantive. 

"  Who  studies,"  is  a  Sentence  used  to  describe  "  he." 

"  Who"  introduces  the  Sentence  ;  hence,  it  performs  the  office  of  a 
Conjunction. 

OBS.  2. — Who  and  whom  arc  applied  to  man,  and  to  other  intelligent 
beings  ;  which,  to  things  ;  that,  to  persons  or  to  things." 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  "  He  THAT  attends  to  his  interior  self,  has  business." 

2.  "  Too  low  they  build,  WHO  build  beneath  the  stars." 

3.  "  lie  WHOM  sea-severed  realms  obey." 

4.  "  The  books  WHICH  I  had  lost  have  been  returned." 

5.        ' '  where  is  the  patience  now 

THAT  you  so  oft  have  boasted  to  retain  ?' ' — Lear,  iii.  6. 
OBS.  3. — But  the  name  of  a  person,  taken  as  a  name  merely,  or  as  a 
title,  may  be  represented  by  the  Relative  which. 

EXAMPLE. — Shylock — WHICH  is  but  another  name  for  selfishness. 

OBS.  4. — When  the  Relative  "what"  is  used  substantively,  it  usually 
bears  a  part  in  the  structure  of  two  sentences  at  the  same  time.  It  is 
equivalent  to  "that  which,"  or  "the  things  which"  The  Antecedent 
part  may  be  the  Subject  (A)  or  the  Object  (B)  of  a  Principal  Sentence, 
the  Object  (c)  of  a  Phrase  in -that  Sentence,  or  used  in  Predicate  (D). 

19* 


222  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR — PART   in. 

The  Consequent  or  Relative  part  introduces  an  Auxiliary  Sentence, 
which  qualifies  the  Antecedent,  and  may  be  the  Subject  (E)  or  the 
Object  (G)  of  that  Sentence,  the  Object  of  a  Phrase  (H),  or  used  in  Pred- 
icate with  a  Verb  (i). 

1.  "WHAT  reason  weaves,  by  passion  is  un- 

done."— Pope. 

2.  "  Deduct  WHAT  is  but  vanity." — Idem. 

....    g    1 1  jjg^k  wag  favored  with  WHAT  he  most  de- 
lighted in." 

4.  "It  is  not  WHAT  I  supposed  it  to  be." 

OBS.  5. —  What  is  sometimes  a  Simple  Relative. 

EXAMPLE.—"  And  what  love  can  do,  that  dares  love  attempt." — Romeo. 

OBS.  6. —  Whoever,  whosoever,  ichatever,  whatsoever,  and  who  (used  for 
whoever),  have  a  construction  similar  to  what. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.   "  Whatever  purifies  fortifies  also  the  heart." 

2.  "  Who  lives  to  nature  rarely  can  be  poor." 

3.  "  Who  lives  to  Fancy,  never  can  be  rich." 

OBS.  7. — What,  which,  whatever,  and  whatsoever,  are  often  used  Ad- 
jectively. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  t(  What  book  have  you?" 

2.  "  Whatever  object  is  most  dear." 

3.  "  Whatsoever  things  are  honest." 

4.  "  Which  hope  we  have." 

OBS.  8. — That  is  sometimes  improperly  used  for  the  Relative  what. 
EXAMPLE.—''  Take  tliat  is  thine." 

OBS.  9. —  What  is  sometimes  substituted  for  an  Adverbial  Phrase. 
EXAMPLE. — "  What  [in  what  respect]  shall  it  profit  a  man  ?" 
OBS.  10. —  What  is  sometimes  used  as  an  Exclamation. 
EXAMPLE. — "  What !    Is  thy  servant  a  dog  ?" 

OBS.  11. — The  two  words,  but  what — and  also,  but  that—oxQ  sometimes 
improperly  used  for  the  Conjunction  that. 

is. — 1.  "  I  did  not  doubt  but  wJiat  you  would  come." 
2.  "  I  did  not  doubt  but  tliat  you  would  come." 


PRONOUNS— RELATIVE.  223 

Corrected. — 1  did  not  doubt  tfiat  you  would  come. 

OBS.  12. — The  Relatives  than  and  as  have  Adjectives,  or  Adjective 
Pronouns,  for  their  Antecedents. 

As,  when  a  Relative  Pronoun,  has  for  its  Antecedent  the  word 
"such" — used  Adjectively,  or  as  an  Adjective  Pronoun. 

Than  follows  more,  or  some  other  Adjective,  in  the  Comparative 
Degree. 

EXAMPLES   FOR   ANALYSIS   AND   PARSING. 

1.   "Nestled  at  his  root 
Is  Beauty  ;  such  AS  blooms  not  in  the  glare 
Of  the  broad  sun."—  Bryant. 

2.  *  *  We  request  such  of  you  as  think  we  overlaud  the  ode,  to  point 
out  one  word  in  it  that  would  be  better  away." — Wilson's  Barns. 
3    "He  has  less  discretion  THAN  he  was  famed  for  having." 
4.   "There  is  more  owing  her  THAN  is  paid." — All's  Well,  i.  3. 

POSITION. 

NOTE  X. — The  Position  of  Relative  Pronouns  should 
be  such  as  most  clearly  to  indicate  their  Antecedents. 

OBS.  1. — When  a  Relative  is  the  Subject  or  the  Object  of  an  Auxiliary 
Sentence,  it  should  be  placed  next  its  Antecedent. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  "Can  all  THAT  optics  teach  unfold 

Thy  form  to  please  me  so  ?" 
2.   "  The  grave,  THAT  never  spoke  before, 

Hath  found,  at  length,  a  tongue  to  chide." 

EXCEPTION. — Sometimes,  for  rhetorical  effect,  words  of  special  im- 
portance may  be  placed  between  the  Relative  and  its  Antecedent. 

EXAMPLE. — "  0,  they  love  least  THAT  let  men  know  their  love." 

OBS.  2. — When  the  Relative  is  the  Object  of  a  Prepositional  Phrase, 
it  comes  between  its  Antecedent  and  the  Auxiliary  Sentence  with  which 
that  Phrase  is  construed. 

EXAMPLE. — "  We  prize  that  most  FOR  WHICH  we  labor  most." 

REM. — "  For  which' '  modifies  * ' labor" — "  which' '  relates  to  ' '  that." 

OBS.  3. — The  Relative  that,  used  as  the  Object  of  a  Preposition,  is 
placed  before  the  Preposition.  Whom,  which,  and  what,  are  placed  after 
their  Prepositions. 


224  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR — PART   III. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.   "  I  have  meat  to  eat  tJiat  ye  know  not  of." 

2.  "Withhold  not  good  from  them  to  ivhom  it  is  due/' 

3.  *'  The  world  in  which  we  sojourn  is  not  our  home." 

4.  "  We  could  not  learn  for  what  he  came." 

OBS.  4. — The  Relative — when  the  Subject  of  a  Sentence,  or  the 
Object  of  a  Phrase — can  rarely  be  omitted  without  weakening  the  force 
of  the  expression. 

EXAMPLES. — 1 .   * '  For  is  there  aught  in  sleep  [    ]  can  charm  the  wise  * 
2.   "The  time  may  come  [    ]  you  need  not  fly." 

OBS.  5. — But  the  suppression  of  the  Relative  is  allowed  when  it  is 
the  Object  of  a  Sentence,  or  when  the  position  of  the  words  is  such  as 
to  prevent  ambiguity  or  weaken  the  expression. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.   "History  is  all  the  light  we  have  in  many  cases, 
and  we  receive  from  it  a  great  part  of  the  useful 
truths  we  have." 
2.  "  But  they  that  fight  for  freedom,  undertake 

The  noblest  cause  mankind  can  have  at  stake."   , 


INTERROGATIVES. 

XI. — Interrogative  Pronouns  are  construed  like 
Personal  Pronouns. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  As  the  Subject  .of  a  Sentence — WHO  has  the  lesson? 

2.  As  the  Object  of  a  Sentence — WHOM  seek  ye  ? 

3.  As  the  Object  of  a  Phrase — Far  WHAT  do  we  labor  ? 

OBS.  1. — The  Interrogative  force  of  such  Pronouns  is  commonly  sup- 
pressed when  they  introduce  Substantive  Auxiliary  Sentences. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  We  shall  soon  ascertain  who  has  the  lesson. 

2.  Ye  still  refuse  to  tell  whom  ye  seek. 

3.  We  scarcely  know  for  ivhat  we  labor. 

OBS.  2. — But  the  Principal  Sentence  may  remain  interrogative. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.   "  Who  shall  decide  which  shall  have  the  premium  ?" 

2.  How  can  you  teU  whom  the  teacher  will  reward  ? 

3.  By  whom  did  you  learn  for  whom  I  voted  ? 

OBS.  3. — The  word  which  answers  a  question  has  a  construction, 
similar  to  that  of  the  word  which  asks  it. 


PRONOUNS ADJECTIVE.  225 

EXAMPLES.— 1.  Whose  book  1m vc  you  ?     Mary's. 

2.  What  could  I  do  ?     Nothing. 

3.  Where  did  you  see  him  ?     Li  Rochester 

4.  TF/tfwce  came  they  ?     From  Ireland. 

REM. — "Mary's"  specifies  "book" — "in  Rochester"  modifies  "ofid 
see" — " from  Ireland"  modifies  "came." 

OBS.  4. — The  Interrogative  what,  followed  by  the  Conjunctions  though, 
if,  and  some  others,  commonly  belongs  to  a  Principal  Sentence  under- 
stood, on  which  the  following  Sentence  depends  for  sense. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.   ' '  What  if  the  foot  aspired  to  be  the  head  ?" 

What  [would  be  the  consequence]  if  the  foot,  etc. 
2.   "What    though   Destruction    sweep    these    lovely 

plains?" 

What  [occasion  have  we  to  despair]  though  Destruc- 
tion sweep  these  lovely  plains  ? 


ABJECTIVE   PKONOUNS. 

RULE  5.  —  Adjective  Pronouns  are  substituted  for  the 
Nouns  which  they  qualify. 


I.  —  When  used  as  Subjects,  each,  either,  neither, 
this,  that,  and  all  other  Adjective  Pronouns  indicating 
unity,  require  their  Verbs  to  be  in  the  Singular  Number. 

EXAMPLES.  —  1  .   '  *  Each  believes  its  own.  '  ' 
2.  Either  is  sufficient. 

NOTE  II.  —  These,  those,  many,  others,  several,  and  other 
Adjective  Pronouns  indicating  plurality,  require  their 
Verbs  to  be  in  the  Plural. 

EXAMPLES.—  1.   "  These  are  the  things  which  defile." 
2.   "  Those  were  halcyon  days." 

NOTE  III.  —  Any,  all,  like,  some,  none,  more,  and  such, 
may  have  Verbs  in  the  Singular  or  Plural,  according  as 
they  indicate  unity  or  plurality. 


226  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR PART   III. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.   "  None  but  the  upright  in  heart  are  capable  of  being 
true  friends." — Y.  L.  Friend. 

2.  ' '  None  has  arrived. ' ' 

3.  "AH  arc  but  parts  of  one  stupendous  whole." 

4.  4<  What  if  the  field  be  lost  ?    All  is  not  lost." 

5.  "  The  like  were  never  seen  before." 

6.  u  Like  produces  like." 

7.  "  Objects  of  importance  must  be  portrayed  by  objects 

of  importance  ;    such   as  have  grace,  by   things 
graceful." 

8.  Nestled  at  its  root 

Is  Beauty  ;  such  as  blooms  not  in  the  glare 
Of  the  broad  sun.7' 

OBS.  1. — Qualifying  and  some  Specifying  Adjectives  receive  the 
definitive  "  the"  before  them,  on  becoming  Adjective  Pronouns.  They 
may  be  qualified  by  Adjectives  or  by  Adverbs,  according  as  the  thing  or 
the  quality  is  to  be  limited. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.   "  The  GOOD  alone  are  great." 

2.  "The  professedly  GOOD  are  not  always  really  so." 

3.  "  The  much  GOOD  done  by  him  will  not  soon  be  for- 

gotten " 

"Professedly"  modifies  the  quality  ;  hence,  it  is  an  Adverb. 
"Much"  limits  the  things  done  ;  hence,  it  is  an  Adjective. 

OBS.  2. — In  the  analysis  of  a  Sentence,  each,  other,  one  another,  and 
similar  distributives,  art  properly  parsed  as  single  words. 

But,  in  strict  construction  the  parts  perform  different  offices. 

EXAMPLES. — They  assisted  each  other. 

They  assisted — each  [assisted]  the  other. 

OBS.  3. — When  two  things  are  mentioned  in  contrast,  and  severally 
referred  to  by  Adjective  Pronouns — this  and  these,  refer  to  the  latter — 
that  and  those,  to  the  former. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.   "Here  living  tea-pots  stand,  one  arm  held  out, 

ONE  bent ;  the  handle  THIS,  and  that  the  spout." — 
Pope. 

2.  "Farewell,  my  friends ;  farewell,  my  FOES; 

My  peace  with  THESE,  my  love  with  those." — Burns. 

3.  "  Some  place  the  bliss  in  action  ;  SOME,  in  ease  : 

Those  call  it  pleasure  ;  and  contentment  THESE." 


PKONOUNS — ADJECTTYE.  227 

EXERCISES. 
*'  lie  that  geiteth  wisdom,  lovdh  his  own  soul." 


MODIFIED  SUBJECT "He  that  getteth  wisdom,'* 

LOGICAL  PREDICATE "  Loveth  Ms  own  soul." 

GRAMMATIC  ELEMENTS. 
Principal  Elements.  Adjunct  Elements. 

SUBJECT "  He" OF  THE  SUBJECT "That  getteth  wisdom" 

PREDICATE.  .  "  loveth"  ....  OF  THE  PREDICATE.  . 

OBJECT " soul" OF  THE  OBJECT k\t    ™  ,, 

PARSED  BY  THE  CHAJIT, 

"He" Is  an  Element  in  the  Sentence — Principal  Element — 

Subject— Word — Pronoun — Personal — Masculine   Gen- 
der— Third  Person — Singular  Number — Objective  Case. 

RULE  3. — "  The  Object  of  an  Action  or  rdation  must  be  in  the  Objective  Case." 

That  getteth )  Is  an  Element  in  the  Sentence — Adjunct  Element — Sen- 
wisdom.  . .  f  tence — Adjective — Transitive — and  limits  "  He." 

RULE  7. — "  Adjectives  belong  to  Nouns  and  Pronouns  which  they  describe." 

**  That'' Is  an  Element  in  the  Auxiliary  Sentence — Principal  Ele- 
ment —  Siibject  —  Word  —  Pronoun  —  Relative  —  Third 
Person— Singular  Number— Nominative  Case. 

RULE  1. — "•  The  Subject  of  a  Sentence  must  be  in  the  Nominative  Case" 

"  Getteth" Is  an  Element  in  the  Auxiliary  Sentence—  Principal  Ele- 
ment —  Predicate  — Verb  —  Indicative  Mode  —  Present 
Tense— agreeing  with  its  Subject  "  that"  in  the  Third 
Person — Singular  Number. 

RULB  2.— "  A  Verb  must  agree  with  its  Svtyed  in  Person  and  Nitmber." 


228  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR PART   III. 

"Wisdom". .  .Is  an  Element  in  the  Auxiliary  Sentence— Principal  Ele- 
ment— Object — Word — Noun — Common — Third  Person 
— Singular  Number  -Objective  Case. 

RULE  3. — "  The  Object  of  an  Action  is  in  the  Objective  Case.'1 
"Loveth" Is  an  Element  in  the  Principal  Sentence— Principal  Ele- 
ment —  Predicate  — Verb  —  Indicative    Mode  —  Present 
Tense — agreeing  With  its  Subject  "He"  in  the  Third 
Person— Singular  Number. 

RULE  2. — '  *  A  Verb  in  Predicate  must  agree  with  its  Subject  in  Person  and 
Number. ' ' 

"His" Is  an  Element  in   the   Sentence — Adjunct  Element — 

Word— Adjective— Specifying — Possessive  —  and  limits 
"soul." 

RULE  8. — "A   Noun    or  a   Pronoun    in   the   Possessive    Case,   is    used 
Adjectively. ' ' 

RULE  7. — "  Adjectives  belong  to  Nouns  which  they  describe." 

"Own" Is  an  Element  in  the  Sentence — Adjunct  Element — 

Word — Adjective — Specifying — and  limits  "  soul." 

RULE  7. — Adjectives  belong  to  Nouns  which  they  limit." 

1 '  Soul' ' Is  an  Element  in  the  Sentence — Principal  Element — 

Obj ect — Word — Noun — Common — Third  Person — Sin- 
gular Number — Objective  Case. 

RULE  3. — "  The  Object  of  an  Action  must  be  in  the  Objective  Case." 
The  above  is  an  appropriate  MODEL  for  the  following 

ADDITIONAL  EXAMPLES. 

1.  The  man  who  was  present  can  give  the  particulars. 

2.  The  person  WHOM  we  met  appeared  very  much  alarmed. 

3.  I  saw  the  wretch  THAT  did  it. 

4.  We  saw  the  man  WHOM  you  described. 
6.  "  Hesperus,  that  led 

The  starry  host,  rode  brightest."— Mlton. 

6.  "  Memory  and  Forecast  just  returns  engage — 

That  pointing  back  to  youth,  this  on  to  age." 

7 .  "  There  is  something  in  their  hearts  which  passes  speech . ' ' — Story. 

8.  "  Behind  the  sea-girt  rock,  the  star 

That  led  him  on  from  crown  to  crown 
Has  sunk."— Pierpont. 


NOUNS    AND   PRONOUNS.  229 

9.  * '  The  mountain- cloud 

That  night  hangs  round  him,  and  the  breath 
Of  morning  scatters,  is  the  shroud 
That  wraps  the  conqueror's  clay  in  death. — Idem. 
10.  "Mount  the  horse 

"Which  I  have  chosen  for  thee. — Coleridge. 
*  11    "  Few  be  they  who  will  stand  out  faithful  to  thee." — Idem. 

12.  "  For  cold  and  stiff  and  still  are  they  who  wrought 

Thy  walls  annoy. ' '  — Macaulay. 

13.  "  Ishmael's  wandering  race,  that  rode 

On  camels  p'er  the  spicy  tract  that  lay 
From  PeA**J^5>Ute  Red  Sea  coast." — Pollock. 

14.  "  The  kijfcn<|raiit'OQ  the  Jews  which  were  in  every  city,  to  gather 

themselves  together,  and  to  stand  for  their  life,  to  destroy, 
to  slay,  and  to  cause  to  perish,  all  the  power  of  the  people 
and  province  that  would  assault  them." — Bible. 

15.  "  We  have  more  than  heart  could  wish." 

16.  "  My  punishment  is  greater  than  I  can  bear." 


INDEPENDENT   CASE. 

RULE  6. — A  Noun  or  a  Pronoun,  not  dependent  on  any 
other  word  in  construction,  is  in  the  Independent  Case. 

REM.  1.— As  the  grammatical  Subject  of  a  Sentence  is  limited  to  the 
Nominative  Case  of  Is  juns  and  Pronouns,  so  the  Nominative  Case  is 
properly  limited  to  the  Subject  of  a  Sentence.  Hence  the  term 
"Nominative  Case  Independent"  is  inappropriate. 

REM.  2. — The  term  "  Independent  Case"  as  applied  to  Nouns  and 
Pronouns,  indicates  simply  that  they  do  not  bear  a  part  in  the  struc- 
ture of  Sentences  as  integral  Elements. 

This  term  includes  the  following  six  distinct  conditions  of  Nouns 
and  Pronouns : 

1.  Names  of  persons  and  things  addressed.    "Appellatives." 

2.  Explanatory  words.    "  In  Apposition." 

3.  Leaders  of  Independent  Phrases.    "  Case  Absolute." 

4.  In  Predicate  with  Verbs.     "Case  after  Neuter  Verbs." 

5.  Words  of  Euphony. 

6.  Titles — and  Exclamatory  Words. 

These  conditions  are  exemplified  in  the  following  NOTBS. 

20 


230  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR  -  PART   III. 


I.  —  The  name  of  a  person  or  thing  addressed  is 
in  the  Independent  Case. 

EXAMPLES.  —  I.  ''FRIENDS,  ROMANS,  COUNTRYMEN." 

2.  "  Come,  gentle  SPRING  —  ethereal  MILDNESS,  come." 

OBS.  1.  —  In  the  last  example  the  word  tJwu,  understood,  is  the  proper 
subject  of  "come."  The  words  "spring"  and  "mildness"  are  ad- 
dressed, and  are  independent  in  construction.  [See  p.  85.] 

NOTE  II.  —  A  Noun  or  a  Pronoun,  used  to  explain  a  pre- 

ceding Noun  or  Pronoun,  is  in  the  Ind^  •"  (4}dent  Case. 
'.  nc  -  Adj 

EXAMPLES.  —  1.  Paul,  the  APOSTLE,  wrote  to  TimoJssiv>. 

2.   *  '  Up  springs  the  lark,  shrill-  voiced  a^d  shrewd, 
The  MESSENGER  of  morn." 

OBS.  1.  —  This  Note  applies  also  to  Phrases  and  to  Sentences. 

EXAMPLES.  —  1.  It  is  our  duty  to  STUDY. 

2.  "  It  is  possible  THAT  WE  HAVE  MISJUDGED."     [Seep. 
235.] 

OBS.  2.  —  An  Independent  Noun  or  Pronoun  is  properly  a  Logical 
Adjunct  when  it  is  used  to  describe  or  limit  another  word. 

EXAMPLES.  —  Paul  the  APOSTLE.  —  Peter  the  GREAT. 

HEM.  —  "Apostle"  describes  "Paul,"  by  limiting  the  application  of 
that  name  to  a  particular  individual.  [See  p.  85.] 

NOTE  III.  —  A  Noun  or  a  Pronoun,  used  as  the  Leader 
of  an  Independent  Phrase,  is  in  the  Independent  Case. 

EXAMPLES.  —  1.  The  HOUR  having  arrived,  we  commenced  the  exercises. 
2.  "Thus  talking,  HAND  in  hand,  alone  they  passed 
On  to  their  blissful  bower.  '  '     Hand  being  in  hand. 

NOTE  IV.  —  A  Noun  or  a  Pronoun,  used  in  Predicate 
with  a  Verb,  is  in  the  Independent  Case. 

EXAMPLES.  —  "Thou  art  a  scholar."  —  It  is  /.  —  "  God  is  love." 
"He  maketh  the  storm  a  calm" 

OBS.  —  A  Noun  or  a  Pronoun  used  in  Predicate,  may  have  the  form 
of  the  Nominative  or  of  the  Objective  Case. 


NOUNS   AND   PRONOUNS.  231 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  "  I  thought  it  to  be  him."* 

2.  "It  was  not  me*  that  you  saw." 

3.  "It  was  not  I  that  did  it." 

REM. — This  idiom  is  established  by  good  authority — ancient  and 
modern— and  grammarians  can  not  well  alter  the  custom. 

"  Nescire  quid  accident  antequam  natus  es,  est  semper  esse  puerwm." 

"  Not  to  know  what  happened  before  you  was  born,  is  always  to  be 
a  boy." 

Here,  "puerum"  (boy)  has  the  form  of  the  Accusative  Case  (Objec- 
tive), and  can  not  be  in  the  Nominative. 

NOTE  Y. — A  Noun  or  a  Pronoun,  used  for  Euphony,  is 
in  the  Independent  Case. 

EXAMPLE.  — ' '  The  rr  — i  herself  is  lost  in  heaven. ' ' 

r.y 

OBS. — In  this  Note  are  properly  included  Nouns  and  Pronouns,  re- 
peated for  the  sake  of  emphasis. 

EXAMPLE. — "This,  THIS  is  thinking  free." 

NOTE  VI. — A  Noun  or  a  Pronoun  denoting  the  Subject 
of  remark — the  title  of  a  book — used  in  address,  or  in  ex- 
clamation, etc.,  is  in  the  Independent  Case. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.   "  Our  Fathers  I  where  are  they,  and  the  Prophets  !  do 

they  live  forever?" 
2.   ' '  Wright' s  Orthography. ' ' 

2£ir  Let  the  Pupils  correct  the  following 
ERRORS. 

1.  "  Me  being  satisfied,  you  ought  to  be  so  too." 

2.  My  being  fatigued,  John  finished  my  task  for  me. 

3.  I  thought  it  to  be  he. 

4.  It  was  not  me  that  did  it. 

5.  It  was  not  I  that  you  saw. 

DBS.  1. — Adverbial  Sentences  are  often  elegantly  condensed  into 
Independent  Phrases. 

EXAMPLES. 

Sentence. —  When  the  hour  had  arrived,  we  commenced  the  exercises. 
Phrase. — The  hour  having  arrived,  we  commenced  the  exercises. 

*  Well-established  custom  requires  the  same  RULE  in  English  that  is  given  in 
our  Greek  Grammars.  tkThe  Antecedent  is  sometimes  put,  by  attraction^  in  the 
case  of  the  relative.'* 


232  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR — PART  III. 

HEM.  I,—  "When  the  hour  had  arrived"  is  a  Grammatical  Adjunct 
of  "commenced,"  an  Adverbial  Sentence.  " Hour"  is  the  Subject  of  that 
Sentence  ;  hence,  in  the  Nominative  Case. 

HEM.  2. — "The  hour  having  arrived,"  is  a  Logical  Adjunct  of 
"commenced,"  an  Independent  Phrase.  "Hour"  is  the  Leader  of  that 
Phrase  ;  hence,  in  the  Independent  Case. 

OBS.  2  — By  a  custom  not  to  be  recommended  nor  allowed,  except 
by  "poetic  license,"  an  Independent  Phrase  is  sometimes  preceded  by 
a  Preposition,  which  does  not  indicate  a  relation,  nor  properly  connect 
it  to  an  Antecedent. 

EXAMPLES.— 1.   "  WITH  arm  in  arm,  the  forest  rose  on  high, 

And  lessons  gave  of  brotherly  regard." 
2.   *  *  UPON  our  horse  becoming  weary,  we  procured  lodgings 
at  a  private  house." 

HEM.  1. — "With"  is  not  necessary  to  the  grammatical  construction 
of  the  Sentence — its  affix  being  simply  to  preserve  the  rhythm. 

KEM.  2.— The  use  of  "  upon"  is  unnecessary  and  improper. 

EXERCISES  IN  THE  USE  OF  THE  INDEPENDENT  CASE, 

1 .  0  Absalom  !  my  son,  my  son  ! 

2.  Lend  me  your  songs,  ye  nightingales  ! 

3.  How  is  IT  possible  not  to  feel  grateful  for  such  benefits  ! 

4.  Other  things  being  equal,  we  prefer  a  fruit-growing  climate. 
5    Thou  art  the  ruins  of  the  noblest  man 

That  ever  lived  in  the  tide  of  time. 

6.  Henceforth  I  never  will  be  Romeo. 

7.  John  dislikes  to  be  called  an  idle  boy. 

8.  That  little  indiscretion  made  him  my  enemy. 

9.  His  teeth  they  chatter  still. 

ADJUNCTS. 

NOTE  I. — Adjuncts  belong  to  the  words  which,  they 
modify  or  describe. 

THE  FORMS  OF  ADJUNCTS 
OBS.  1. — Adjuncts  may  consist  of  Words,  Phrases,  or  Sentences. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  A  Word. — We  were  walking  homeward. 

2.  A  Phrase. — We  were  walking  toward  home. 

3.  A  Sentence. — "  Let  me  stand  here  till  thou  remember  it." 


ADJUNCTS FORMS    OF.*  233 

II. — In  the  use  of  Adjuncts,  that  form  should  be 
employed  which  will  most  fully  convey  the  sense  intended. 

OBS.   1. — Many   Adjunct    Words,   Phrases,    and   Sentences   are   inter- 
changeable. 

EXAMPLES, 

Word  Adjuncts. — 1.   "An  honest  MAN  is  the  noblest  work  of  God." 
2    "  Dark  DAYS  are  remembered." 

3.  "  The  wind's  low  SIGH. ' ' 

4.  James  CAME  to  school  early. 

Phrase  Adjuncts. — 5.  A  MAN  of  honesty  is  the  noblest  work  of  God. 

6.  Let  him  remember  the  DAYS  of  darkness. 

7.  The  low  SIGH  of  the  wind. 

8.  James  CAME  to  school  at  an  early  hour. 
Sentence  Adjuncts. — 9.  A  MAN  who  is  honest,  is  the  noblest  work  of  God. 

10.  DAYS  which  are  dark,  are  long  remembered. 

11.  The  low  SIGH  which  the  wind  seems  to  make. 

12.  James  CAME  to  school  while  it  was  yet  early. 

OBS.  2. — But  this  interchange  of  Adjuncts  is  not  always  admissible. 

EXAMPLES. 

Correct. — "The  TIME  of  my  departure  is  at  hand." 
Incorrect. — My  departure's  TIME  is  at  hand.     [See  Obs.  3,  p.  244.] 

OBS.  3. — Adjuncts  are  often  Complex.     One  Adjunct  Word  may  be 
qualified  or  limited  by  another  Word. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  Two  HUNDRED  dollars. 

2.  The  CLOUD'S  deep  voice. — 3.  The  WIND'S  low  sigh. 
s.  4. — An  Adjunct  Word  may  be  limited  by  a  Phrase. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.   "  From  the  shore,  EAT  into  caverns,  by  the  restless  wave.11 
2.   "  Wisdom  is  TOO  high  for  a  fool.11 

OBS.  5.— An  Adjunct  Word  may  be  limited  by  a  Sentence. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.   "  He  called  so  loud  that  all  the  hollow  deep  resounded." 
2.   "  OFT  as  the  morning  dawns  should  gratitude  ascend." 

[See  Diagram,  p.  42,  and  Diagram  3,  p.  44.] 
OBS.  6. — An  Adjunct  Phrase  may  be  limited  by  a  Word. 
EXAMPLE. — Arthur  went  almost  TO  BOSTON.     [See  Diagram,  p.  254.] 
OBS.  7. — An  Adjunct  Sentence  may  be  limited  by  a  Word. 

EXAMPLE. — "  NOT  as  the  conqueror  comes, 

They  the  true-hearted  came."     [See  p.  254.] 
20* 


234:  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR  -  PART   III. 

THE  OFFICES  OF  ADJUNCTS. 

OBS.  8.  —  Adjuncts  may  be  attached  to  any  of  the  five  Elements  of 
Sentences. 

1.  To  the  Subject.  ..."  The  KING  of  shadows  loves  a  shining  mark." 

[See  Diagram,  p.  39.] 

2.  To  the  Predicate.  .  "  And  when  its  yellow  luster  smiled 

O'er  mountains  yet  untrod, 
Each  mother  HELD  aloft  her  child, 
To  bless  the  bow  of  God." 
[See  Diagram,  p.  62.] 

3.  To  the  Object  .....  '  '  They  undertake  the  noblest  cause  mankind  can 

.  have  at  stake."     [See  Diagram,  p.  59.] 

4.  To  the  Adjective.  .  .  '  '  The  truly  VIRTUOUS  man  is  not  REGARDLESS  of 

his  reputation.  '  ' 

5.  To  the  Adverb.  .  .  .  "  Wisdom  is  TOO  high  for  a  fool." 

11  Oft  as  the  morning  dawns  should  gratitude 
ascend."     [See  Diagram,  p.  42.] 
Hence, 


I.  —  All  Adjuncts  of  Substantives  are  to  be  parsed 
as  Adjectives  ;  Adjuncts  of  Verbs,  Participles,  Adjectives^ 
and  Adverbs,  are  to  be  parsed  as  Adverbs. 

OBS.  —  In  addition  to  Grammatical  Adjuncts,  we  have  what  may  prop- 
erly be  called  Logical  Adjuncts.  These  are  commonly  Substantives, 
independent  in  construction,  yet  serving  indirectly  to  limit  or  modify 
other  Elements.  [See  p.  29.] 

They  may  be  Words,  Phrases,  or  Sentences. 

EXAMPLES. 

Word.  —  PETEB  the  Hermit  resembled,  in  temperament,  PETER  the 
Apostle. 


Peter  /        resembled  Peter 

Hermit     ~)        \^DJ  temperament)    (^     Apostle 


REM. — "  Hermit"  and  "Apostle"  are  Nouns,  yet  serve  to  distinguish 
the  two  men  named  "Peter." 


ADJUNCTS — OFFICES    OF.  235 

Phrase. — IT  is  not  good  for  man  to  be  alone, 
is  good        ~~^ 


tol      be  alone 


What  is  not  good  for  man  ?    To  be  alone.     Hence, 

REM. — The  Phrase  "to  be  alone'  is  a  Logical  Adjunct  of  "it."  It 
indicates  what  is  meant  by  that  Pronoun,  and  may  be  substituted  for 
it — thus,  To  be  alone,  is  not  good  for  man. 

Sentence. — IT  is  possible  that  we  mistake. 


f  It  Y         is    possible          J 


HEM.—  •"  That  we  mistake"  limits  the  signification  of  the  word  "  IT." 
For  further  Observations  on  Logical  Adjuncts,  see  "INDEPENDENT 
CASE,"  Part  II.,  p.  85. 

ADJECTIVES. 

RULE  7. — Adjectives  belong  to  Nouns  and  Pronouns 
which  they  describe. 

OBS.  1. — It  should  be  remembered  that  any  word  whose  most  im- 
portant office  is  to  specify,  qualify,  or  otherwise  describe  a  person  or  a 
thing,  is,  therefore,  an  Adjective.  [See  Def.  97.]  A  word  which  is 
sometimes  or  generally  used  as  some  other  "part  of  speech,"  may,  in 
certain  connections,  be  used  Adjectively ;  and  when  thus  used,  it  is  an 
Adjective. 

EXAMPLES. — An  iron  fence. —  Working  oxen. 

HEM. — Every  Adjective  having  its  Substantive  understood,  becomes 
Pronominal.  [See  Adjective  Pronouns,  p.  93.] 

OBS.  2. — An  Adjective  may  consist  of 


A  Word.—  The  recitation  hour  has  arrived. 

A  Phrase. — The  hour  for  recitation  has  arrived. 

A  Sentence. — The  hour  in  which  we  recite  has 
arrived. 


236  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR PART   III. 

ADJECTIVE    WORDS. 
OBS. — Adjectives  describe  things  in  two  distinct  methods  : 

1.  As  an  ordinary  epithet,  in  which  the  attribute  is  not  asserted, 
but  implied  or  assumed. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  A  sweet  apple. 

2.  A  few  inhabitants. 

3.  "  Night,  sable  goddess,  from  her  ebon  throne, 

In  rayless  majesty,  now -stretches  forth 
Her  leaden  scepter  o'er  a  slumbering  world." 

2.  By  asserting  the  attribute  with  the  aid  of  a  Verb  or  a  Participle 

4.  The  apple  is  sweet. 

5.  The  inhabitants  are  free. 

6.  The  world  is  slumbering. 

7.  "  This  latter  mode  of  expression  falls  short  of  the  force 

and  vehemence  of  the  former." — Murray- 

THE  FORMS  OF  ADJECTIVES. 

HEM.  1. — Many  words  in  the  English  Language  are,  primarily,  Ad- 
jectives. 

EXAMPLES. — Hard — soft — sour — sweet — good — bad — old — young. 
HEM.  2. — But  most  words  used  as  Adjectives  are  Derivative  Words. 
EXAMPLES.  — Arabia/I — virtuous — hope/wZ — masterZy — children' s 
HEM.  3. — Many  Adjectives  have  the  same  form  as  the  Noun. 
EXAMPLES. — A  silver  pencil — a  gold  pen — a  stone  bridge. 

NOTE  I. — That  form  of  the  Adjective  should  be  used 
which  is  in  accordance  with  reputable  usage. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  A  gold  pen — not  a  golden  pen. 

2.  A  silver  pencil — not  a  silvery  pencil. 

3.  "  Golden  ears,  though  richly  waving, 

Must,  in  harvest,  fall. ' ' 

4.  "The  silvery  tide  will  bear  thee." 

OBS.  1.— Two  or  more  Adjectives  are  often  used  as  distinct  Ad- 
juncts of  the  game  Substantive. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.   "  The  tall  dark  MOUNTAINS  and  the  deep-toned  SEA." 
2.   "  A  TEMPER,  passionate  and  fierce, 

May  suddenly  your  joys  disperse, 
At  one  immense  EXPLOSION." 


ADJECTIVES COMPARISON   OF.  237 

HEM.— But  the  same  Noun  rarely  has  more  than  one  Specifying  Ad- 
jective. [See  Specifying  Adjectives  below.] 

OBS.  2. — When  two  or  more  Adjectives  belong  to  the  same  Noun, 
they  may —  I 

1.  Severally  qualify  the  Substantive  only  ;  or, 

2.  One  Adjective  may  belong  to  the  Noun  as  modified  by  the  other. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.   "  He  was  a  tall,  athletic,  vigorous  man." 

2.   ' '  Lamartine  acted  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  late  French 
Revolution.  ' 

REM. — "Tall,"  "athletic,"  and  "vigorous,"  are  Adjectives — each 
standing  in  the  same  relation  to  the  Word  "man." 

"  French"  describes  or  limits  "  Revolution  ;  "late"  limits  "  French 
Revolution." 

OBS.  3. — This  construction  should  be  distinguished  from  that  in 
which  the  Adjective — and  not  the  Adjective  and  Noun  combined — is 
modified  by  an  Adverb. 

EXAMPLES. — A  very  BEAUTIFUL  flower. — A  long-neglected  duty. 

OBS.  4. — A  Possessive  Specifying  Adjective  may  be  limited  by  another 
Adjective. 

EXAMPLE. — "  He  heard  the  KING'S  command, 
And  saw  that  WRITING'S  truth." 

QUALIFYING   ADJECTIVES. 
COMPARISON. 

REM. — As  things  are  equal  or  unequal,  similar  or  dissimilar,  we  have 
words  indicating  those  differences. 

NOTE  II. — Care  should  be  exercised  in  the  choice  of 
appropriate  words  to  indicate  Comparison. 

1.  COMPARISON  OF  EQUALITY. 

OBS.  1. — Two  or  more  things,  similar  in  any  given  quality,  are  com- 
pared by  the  use  of  the  word  As,  placed  before  the  latter  term. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  John  is  AS  tall  as  James. 

2.  Warner  is  not  so  fair  as  Arthur.  . 

3.  "England  can  spare  from  her  service  SUCH  men  as 

him." — Lord  Brougham. 


238  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR PART    III. 

OBS.  2. — The  former  term  of  the  Comparison  of  Equality  may  be  pre- 
ceded by  As  or  So,  and  sometimes  by  Such.     [See  Examples  above.] 
As  is  commonly  used  in  Affirmative  Sentences. 
So  is  used  in  Negative  Sentences.     [See  Examples  above.] 

2.  COMPARISON  or  INEQUALITY. 

NOTE  III. — In  Comparisons  of  Inequality,  when  but  two 
things  are  compared,  the  former  term  requires  an  Adjective 
or  an  Adverb  of  the  Comparative  Degree. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.   "They  are  STRONGER  than  lions." — Taylor. 

2.   "Their  instinct  is  MORE  PERFECT  than  that  of  man." 

Exception.— Some  good  writers  employ  the  Superlative. 

EXAMPLE. — "The  largest  boat  of  the  two  was  cut  loose." — Cowper. 

OBS.  1. — The  second  term  of  Comparison  of  Inequality  is  commonly 
introduced  by  the  word  Than.  [See  Examples  above.] 

OBS.  2. — When  the  second  term  is  a  Substantive  Word,  Than  is  a 
Preposition. 

EXAMPLE. — **  Than  whom,  Satan  except,  none  higher  sat." — Milton. 

OBS.  3. — When  the  second  term  is  a  Sentence,  Than  is  commonly  a 
Relative  Pronoun  or  a  Conjunction. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.   "  He  has  MORE  than  heart  could  wish." 

2.   "And  there  are  LOVELIER  flowers,  I  ween, 

Than  e'er  in  Eastern  lands  were  seen." 
[For  other  Observations  on  Than,  see  "  Conjunctions."] 

OBS.  4. — The  second  term  of  a  Comparison  may  be  suppressed  when 
the  sense  is  not  thereby  obscured. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  "  We  both  have  fed  as  well." 

2.   "I  have  known  deeper  wrongs." — Mitford. 

NOTE  IY. — Adjectives  of  the  Superlative  Degree  are 
used  when  more  than  two  things  are  compared. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  "  The  richest  treasure  mortal  times  afford  is  spotless 

reputation." 

2.   "Thou  art  the  ruins  of  the  noblest  man 
That  ever  lived  in  the  tide  of  time." 


ADJECTIVES  -  COMPARISON    OF.  239 

.  NOTE  V.—  Comparative  and  Superlative  Adjectives  re- 
quireMifferent  constructions. 

OBS.  1.  —  The  Comparative  Degree  requires  the  former  term  to  be 
excluded  from  the  latter. 

EXAMPLE.  —  Iron  is  more  valuable  than  all  other  metals. 

HEM.  —  In  this  example,  "Iron"  is  put  as  one  term  of  Comparison, 
and  "all  other  metals"  as  the  other  term  —  two  things  are  compared. 
Hence,  the  Comparative  form. 

OBS.  2.  —  The  Superlative  Degree  requires  the  former  term  to  be  in- 
cluded in  the  latter. 

EXAMPLE.  —  Iron  is  the  most  valuable  of  all  the  metals. 

REM.  —  Here,  "all  the  metals"  are  taken  severally.  "Iron"  is  taken 
from  the  list,  and  put  in  comparison  with  the  many  others  —  more  than 
two  things  are  compared.  Hence,  the  use  of  the  Superlative  form. 


VI.  —  Adjectives  whose  significations  do  notfttdmit 
of  Comparison,  should  not  have  the  Comparative  or  the 
Superlative  form. 

EXAMPLE.  —  John's  hoop  is  much  more  circular  than  mine. 
Corrected.  —  John's  hoop  is  much  more  nearly  circular  than  mine. 


VII.  —  Double  Comparatives  and  Superlatives  are 
improper. 

EXAMPLE.  —  In  the  calmest  and  most  stillest  night. 
OBS.  —  But  Lesser  is  often  used  by  good  writers. 
EXAMPLE.  —  "The  lesser  co-efficient."  —  Dames'  Algebra. 

HEM.  —  The  Comparison  of  Adjectives  is  not  commonly  absolute,  but 
relative.  Thus,  in  saying  This  is  the  sweetest  apple,  I  merely  say  that 
this  apple  possesses  a  higher  degree  of  the  quality  than  all  other  apples 
with  which  it  is  compared. 

1£3^  Let  the  Pupils  correct  the  following 

ERRORS. 

1.  John  is  not  as  tall  as  James. 

2.  William  is  so  tall  as  his  father, 

3.  The  magnolia  is  more  beautiful  as  the  althea. 

4.  William's  ball  is  rounder  than  mine. 


24:0  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR PAET   III. 

5.  Eve  was  the  fairest  of  all  her  daughters. 

6.  Eve  was  the  fairest  of  all  other  women. 

7.  Eve  was  fairer  than  all  her  other  daughters. 

8.  Nellie  is  the  most  loveliest  of  the  girls. 


SPECIFYING    ADJECTIVES. 

VIII.  —  Specifying  Adjectives  should  be  so  used 
as  clearly  to  signify  the  real  intention  of  the  speaker  or 
writer. 

HEM.  1.  —  The  peculiar  province  of  Specifying  Adjectives  is  to  indicate 
the  individuality  of  beings  or  things.     Hence, 

OBS.  1.  —  Specifying  Adjectives  should  be  used  before  Nouns  taken 
in  a  restricted  sense. 

EXAMPLES.  —  1.  "  The  MAN  of  wealth  and  pride 

*i  Takes  up  a  SPACE  that  many  POOR  supplied.  '  ' 

2.  "He  has  betrayed  the  CONFIDENCE  of  his  FRIENDS." 

3.  "  The  TRUTH  of  that  PROPOSITION  is  self-evident." 

HEM.  2.  —  But  Nouns  may  be  restricted  by  the  use  of  Phrases. 

EXAMPLES.  —  1  .   *  '  LOVE  of  virtue  is  exhibited  in  DEEDS  of  charity.  '  ' 

2.   *  '  APPLICATION  to  studies  secures  EXCELLENCE  in  scholar- 
ship. '  ' 

OBS.  2.  —  Specifying  Adjectives  should  not  be  used  before  Nouns 
taken  in  a  general  sense. 

EXAMPLES.  —  1.   "  Man  needs  but  little  here  below." 

2.  "  Confidence  is  a  plant  of  slow  growth." 

3.  "  Truth  crushed  to  earth  shall  rise  again." 

OBS.  3.  —  Specifying  Adjectives  should  not  be  used  before  Proper 
Nouns. 

EXAMPLES.  —  Jackson  was  the  more  skillful  general  ; 
Webster,  the  greater  statesman. 

HEM.  3.  —  Proper  Nouns  are  rendered  Common  by  the  use  of  Specify- 
ing Adjectives. 

EXAMPLE.  —  Lincoln  is  the  Washington  of  the  nineteenth  century. 


IX.  —  A  Specifying  Adjective  should  be  repeated 
when  its  omission  would  occasion  ambiguity  or  obscurity. 


ADJECTIVES — SPECIFYING.  24:1 

OBS.  1. — We  properly  repeat  the  Specifying  Adjective  before  two  or 
more  Nouns  specifically  distinct. 

EXAMPLES.— 1.  Man  knows  neither  the  day  nor  the  hour  of  his  de- 
parture. 

2.  The  North  and  the  South  LINES  £re  parallel. 

3.  "Bowen,  the  editor  of  'The  Teacher,'  and  the  State 

Superintendent,  will  attend  the  Institute." 

HEM. — The  omission  of  "the"  before  "  State  Superintendent"  would 
imply  that  "Bowen"  is  the  State  Superintendent. 

4.  The  teacher  and  the  pupil. 

6.   " My  poverty  and  not  my  will  consents." 

OBS.  2. — We  repeat  the  Specifying  Adjective  when  two  or  more 
Nouns  are  joined  in  the  same  construction  and  taken  severally — • 
especially  if  a  part  of  the  Nouns  are  suppressed. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  We   have  sold  the  black,    the  bay,    and  the  white 

horse. 
2.  "  The  vain,  the  wealthy,  and  the  proud, 

In  folly's  maze  advance." 

8.  The  first,  the  third,  and  the  fifth  child  were  sons. 
4.  "The  honorable  the  Legislature  of  the  State  of  New 
York."' 

NOTE  X. — Specifying  Adjectives  should  not  be  repeated 
before  different  Qualifying  Adjectives  used  to  describe  the 
*  same  thing. 

EXAMPLES.— 1.  An  ignorant  rich  man  is  less  esteemed  than  a  wise 

poor  one. 
2.  "  The  North  and  South  LINE  is  accurately  drawn. 

%&&*  Let  the  Pupils  correct  the  following 

ERRORS. 

1.  G^dest  pupil  in  this  class  is  not  wisest. 

2.  The  proper  study  of  the  mankind  is  the  man. 

3.  The  North  and  South  lines  run  east  and  west. 

4.  The  past  and  present  tense  of  that  verb  do  not  differ  in  form. 

5.  The  North  and  the  South  lines  marked  on  the  map  are  called 

meridians. 

21 


24:2  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR — PART   III. 

NUMERAL   ADJECTIVES. 

NOTE  XI. — -In  the  use  of  Adjectives  that  imply  Num- 
ber, such  should  be  employed  as  agree  in  Number  with 
their  Nouns. 

EXAMPLES.— A  book — one  book— three  books. 

This  book — that  book — some  books. 

OBS.  1.— But  a  Noun  having  two  or  more  Adjectives  differing  in 
Number,  may  agree  in  Number  with  the  one  placed  next  it. 

EXAMPLE. — "  Full  many  A  GEM  of  purest  ray  serene." 

OBS.  2. — One  Numeral  Adjective  may  qualify  another  Numeral. 

EXAMPLES. — ONE  hundred  dollars — a  hundred  horses — FOUR  score  years 
— TWO  dozen  oranges. 

NOTE  XII. — A  Substantive  should  correspond  in  form 
to  the  Number  indicated  by  its  Adjective,  when  the  Ad- 
jective is  necessarily  Singular  or  Plural. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.   "The  field  is  two  miles  long  and  one  mile  broad." 
2.   * '  These  ha?ids  let  useful  skill  forsake — 

This  voice  in  silence  die. ' ' 

OBS. — Exception. — A  few  Nouns  are  used  technically  or  figuratively 
in  the  Singular  Number,  with  Plural  Adjectives. 

EXAMPLES. — A  hundred  head  of  cattle. — Fifty  sail  of  the  line. 
JO®*  Let  the  Pupils  correct  the  following 

ERRORS. 

1.  Mary  has  not  been  at  home  this  six  months. 

2r  The  Ridge  road  is  three  rod  wider  than  the  Braddock's  Bay  road. 

3.  The  surveyor's  chain  is  four  rod  long. 

4.  Hence  it  is  called  a  four  rods  chain. 

5.  William  exchanged  three  pair  of  rabbits  for  ten  dozen  of  eggs. 

POSSESSIVE    SPECIFYING   ADJECTIVES. 

RULE  8. — A  Noun  or  a  Pronoun  in  the  Possessive  Case 
is  used  Adjectively. 

EXAMPLES. —  Webster's  Dictionary. — Our  neighbor. 

OBS.  1. — The  Possessive  Case  is  a  term  applied  by  grammarians,  with 
reference  to  the  fwm  of  Nouns  and  Pronouns.  Neuns  and  Pronouns 


ADJECTIVES — POSSESSIVE    SPECIFYING.  243 

in  this  Case  do  not  always  indicate  possession  ;  and  they  may  be  in 
the  Nominative,  in  the  Objective,  or  in  the  Independent  Case. 

EXAMPLES. 

1.  The  peddler  deals  in  boys'  caps  and  children's  shoes. 

2.  "  And  they  both  beat  alike — only,  MINE  was  the  quickest." 

3.  "  He  is  a  friend  of  MINE,  and  lives  next  door  to  SMITH'S." 

4.  "THINE  is  the  kingdom." 

OBS.  2. — The  sign  of  the  Possessive  Case  is  not  always  annexed  to 
the  name  of  the  Possessor. 

1.  It  may  be  transferred  to  an  attribute  following  the  name  of  the 
possessor. 

t  EXAMPLES. — 1.  The  Pope  of  Rome's  legate. 

2.  "  Whether  it  be  owing  to  the  Author  of  nature's  act- 
ing upon  us  every  moment." — Bp.  Butler. 

2.  When  two  or  more  Possessives,  immediately  following  each  other, 
are  alike  applicable  to  the  same  word,  it  is  attached  only  to  the  last. 

EXAMPLES.— 1.  George,  James,  and  William's  father. 
2.  A.  S.  Barnes  and  Co.'s  publications. 

OBS.  3. — But  the  sign  of  the  Possessive  should  be  repeated  when  one 
Possessive  is  used  to  specify  another. 

EXAMPLE. — Gould's  Adam's  Latin  Grammar. 

OBS.  4. — The  sign  of  the  Possessive  should  be  repeated  when  the 
Possessives  describe  different  things. 

EXAMPLE. — "  Heroes'  and  Heroines  shouts  confusedly  rise." 

NOTE  I. — Possessive  Adjectives  describe  Nouns  and 
Pronouns,  by  indicating  possession,  fitness,  origin,  con- 
dition, etc.,  etc. 

EXAMPLES. 

1.  Boys'  caps "  Boys'  "  denotes  the  size  of  the  caps. 

2.  Webster's  Dictionary "  Webster's"  denotes  the  author. 

3.  "  Heaven's  immortal  Spring  shall  yet  arrive, 

And  man's  majestic  beauty  bloom  again, 

Bright  through  the  eternal  year  of  Loves  majestic  reign." 

OBS.  1.— A  Noun  or  a  Pronoun  in  the  Possessive  Case  is  often 
equivalent  to  an  Adjective  Phrase. 


24:4:  ENGLISH   GKAMMAE  -  PART   HI. 

EXAMPLES. 

1.  The  people's  will  ................  The  will  of  the  people. 

2.  Webster's  Dictionary  .............  A  Dictionary  written  by  Webster. 

3.  Boys  caps  ..........  .............  Caps  suitable  for  boys. 

4.  "He  heard  the  king's  command.  .  .The  command  of  the  king. 

5.  And  saw  that  writing  's  truth."  .  .The  truth  of  that  writing. 

OBS.  2.  —  But  they  are  not  always  equivalent. 

EXAMPLES.  —  1.  The  love  of  virtue  .....  is  not  virtue's  love. 
2.  The  desire  of  leisure.  .  .is  not  leisure's  desire. 
Hence, 


II.  —  Possessive  Specifying  Adjectives  and  Adjec- 
tive Phrases  should  not  be   substituted  the  one  for  the 
other  when  they  are  not  fully  equivalent. 
[See  Examples  above.] 

OBS.  1  .—The  laws  of  interchange  of  Possessive  Adjectives  and  their 
kindred  Adjective  Phrases  are  as  follow  : 

1.  When  the  Object  of  the  Prepositional  Phrase  constitutes  the 
Agent  of  an  action,  state,  feeling,  etc.,  implied  in  the  Substantive  limited, 
the  Phrase  and  the  corresponding  Possessive  Adjective  are  equivalent, 
and,  therefore,  interchangeable. 

EXAMPLES. 

1.  The  people's  WILL  ..........  The  WILL  of  the  people. 

2.  The  sun's  RAYS  ............  The  RAYS  of  the  sun. 

3.  Webster's  last  SPEECH  .......  The  last  SPEECH  of  Webster. 

2.  "When  the  Object  of  the  Prepositional  Phrase  constitutes  also  the 
Logical  Object  of  an  action,  state,  feeling,  etc.,  implied  in  the  Substantive 
limited,  the  Phrase  and  the  corresponding  Possessive  Adjective  are  not 
equivalent,  and,  consequently,  can  not  be  interchanged. 

EXAMPLES. 

Correct.  —  "  The  DOCTRINE  of  Divine  sovereignty.'1 
Incorrect  —  Divine  sovereignty's  DOCTRINE. 

3.  When  the  Object  of  the  Prepositional  Phrase  may  be  the  Logical 
Subject  or  the  Logical  Object  of  the  action,  state,  etc.,  implied  in  the 
Substantive  limited,  the  use  of  the  Phrase  generally  occasions  ambiguity, 
and  is  inadmissible  without  the  addition  of  some  other  Element. 

EXAMPEE.—  "  The  love  of  God  shall  make  their  bliss  secure." 


ADJECTIVES — POSSESSIVE    SPECIFYING.  245 

HEM. — This  may  mean  God's  love  to  them  or  their  love  to  God. 

OBS.  2. — If  we  intend  the  former,  the  ambiguity  may  be  removed  by 
the  Phrase  to  them,  placed  after  the  word  "God,"  or,  if  the  latter,  by 
the  word  their  in  place  of  the  word  "  the.'7  Thus, 

1.  The  love  of..  God  to  them  shall  make  their  bliss  secure. 

2.  Their  love  of  God  shall  make  their  bliss  secure. 

OBS.  3. — Adjectives  derived  from  Nouns  and  Pronouns  in  the  Posses- 
sive Case,  often  retain  their  Substantive  character,  and  may  be  qualified 
by  other  Adjectives. 

EXAMPLE. — "  He  saw  that  WRITING'S  truth."  "That"  specifies 
<J  writing."  He  saw  the  truth  of  that  writing. 

HEM. — This  observation  is  also  applicable  to  other  Adjectives  de- 
rived from  Nouns  and  to  Numeral  Adjectives. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  "A  cast  IRON  hinge."     "Cast"  qualifies  "  iron  ;"  and 

"iron"  is  an  Adjective. 

2.  Two  HUNDRED  dollars.     "  Two"  specifies  "  hundred" 
and  "hundred,"  thus  modified,  limits  "dollars." 

OBS.  4. — A  word  in  the  Possessive  form  is  often  used  to  specify  a 
Phrase. 

EXAMPLES.— 1.   "Upon  MR.  TALBOT'S  being  made  Lord  Chancellor.'1 
2.   "From  OUR  being  born  into  the  present  world." 

OBS.  5. — In  constructions  like  the  above,  the  Possessive  sign  should 
not  be  omitted. 

Correct  Construction. — All  presumption  of  DEATH'S  being  the  destruction  of 
living  beings,  must  go  upon  the  supposition  that  they  are  compounded." 

Incorrect  Construction. — 1.   "Nor  is  there  so  much  as  any  appearance 
of  our  LIMBS  being  endued  with  a  power  of  moving,"  etc. — Bp.  Lutler. 
2.   "A  fair  wind  is  the  cause  of  a  VESSEL  sailing. ' 

HEM. — In  the  last  example,  the  author  intended  to  say  that  wind  is 
the  cause  of  an  act — an  act  expressed  by  the  word  "  sailing." 

But  he  makes  himself  say  that  wind  is  the  cause  of  a  thing — a  thing 
named  by  the  word  "  vessel." 

Corrected. — Wind  is  the  cause  of  a  VESSEL'S  sailing. 

OBS.  G. — Possessive  Adjectives  are  sometimes  qualified  by  Sentences 
introduced  by  Relative  Pronouns  and  by  Phrases. 

21* 


24:6  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR PART   HI. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.   "  How  various  HIS  employments  wliom  the  world  calls 
idle. ' '  —  Wilson1  s  Burns. 

2.  "I  have  spoken  of  ms  eminence  as  a  judge." 

3.  "  Heaven  be  THEIR  resource  who  liave  no  other  but  the 

charity  of.  the  world. ' ' 

HEM. — It  is  the  Substantive  Element  in  the  Possessive  Adjective  that 
is  thus  limited  by  the  Auxiliary  Sentence.  Thus,  «'  his"  is  equivalent 
to  "of  him:''  and  "him"  is  limited  by  the  Sentence  "whom  the  world 
calls  idle. ' ' 

POSITION  or  THE  POSSESSIVE. 

OBS.  7. — When  the  Possessive  is  used  Adjectively,  it  is  placed  before 
the  Noun  or  the  Pronoun  which  it  specifies. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  The  WIDOW'S  mite. 

2.  The  CULPRIT'S  confession. 
.  OUR  father  and  OUR  mother. 

OBS.  8. — Like  other  Specifying  Adjectives,  rfc  precedes  Qualifying 
Adj  actives  belonging  to  the  same  Noun  or  Pronoun. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  *"The  BROOK'S  bright  wave." 

2.  "The  WIND'S  low  sigh." 

3.  OUR  devoted  father  and  OUR  affectionate  mother. 

OBS.  9. — Possessive  Adjectives,  in  addition  to  their  primary  office, 
sometimes  introduce  Auxiliary  Sentences. 

EXAMPLE. — "  All  are  bat  parts  of  one  stupendous  WHOLE, 

Whose  body  Nature  is,  and  God  the  soul." — Pope. 

HEM. — In  this  Sentence,  "whose"  is  an  Adjunct  of  "body,"  and  it 
is  used  also  to  introduce  the  Adjunct  Sentence,  "  Whose  body  Nature 
is,  and  God  the  soul." 

OBS.  10. — The  Possessive  Adjective  is  often  the  Logical  Subject  of  a 
Participle. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  "I  have  an  engagement  which  prevents  my  staying 

longer  with  you." 

2.  "I  allude  to  your  inviting  me  to  your  forests." — Pope. 
Who  invited  me  ? — you. 
This  observation  also  applies  to  Substantives. 

EXAMPLE. — The  boy's  mistake.     Who  mistook  ? — the  boy. 


ADJECTIVES   IN    PREDICATE.  247 

ADJECTIVES     IN     PREDICATE. 

NOTE  III. — Aii  Adjective,  like  a  Participle,  may  be  used 
in  Predicate  with  a  Verb,  when  the  Verb  requires  its  aid 
to  make  the  assertion. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  "  His  palsied  hand  waxed  strong" 

2.  "  Canst  thou  grow  sad  as  earth  grows  bright  ?" 

3.  Vanity  often  renders  man  contemptible. 

4.  Virtue  always  makes  man  happy. 

OBS.  1. — Many  English  Verbs  contain  the  signification  of  such  Adjec- 
tives in  themselves.  Thus, 

"  Waxed  strong" . . .  .has  its  equivalent,  strengthened. 

1 '  Grows  bright' ' "          "  brightens. 

"  Makes  happy" "          "  happifies. 

OBS.  2. — But  not  all  Predicate  Adjectives  have  their  equivalent  Verbs. 
Thus,  for  the  Predicate,  ' '  renders  contemptible, ' '  we  have  not  the  Verb, 

conternptibleize. 

OBS.  3. — Participles,  like  Verbs,  sometimes  require  the  use  of  Adjec- 
tives to  complete  the  sense.  Adjectives  thus  used  are  said  to  be  **w 

Predicate. ' ' 
f 

EXAMPLES. — 1.   "The  desire  of  being  happy  reigns  in  all  hearts." 

2.  Her  highest  happiness  consists  in  making  others  happy. 

OBS.  4. — Adjectives  may  be  in  Predicate — 

1.  With  Transitive  Verbs — Active  Voice. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.   "They'll  make  me  mad,  they'll  make  me  mad." 
2.  "The  study  of  science  tends  to  make  us  devout." 

2.  With  Passive  Verbs. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.   "  He  was  made  wretched  by  his  own  folly." 

2.   "The  children  were  rendered  miserable  by  the  sins  of 
the  father." 

3.  With  Neuter  and  other  Intransitive  Verbs. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.   "  How  dear  to  my  heart  are  the  scenes  of  my  child- 
hood." 
2.   "  Be  not  therefore  grieved  nor  angry  with  yourselves." 

4.  With  Verbs— Infinitive  Mode. 


248  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR — PART   III. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.   "The  study  of  science  tends  to  make  us  devout.' 

2.  ' '  Dost  thou  well  to  be  angry  T ' 

3.  "I  own  it  made  my  blood  run  cold." 

6.  With  Participles  as  Adjectives. 

EXAMPLE. — "  Falling  short  of  this,  we  can  not  succeed." 

6.  With  Participles  as  Verbal  Nouns. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.   "  Her  life  was  spent  in  making  others  happy" 

2.   "Becoming  angry  at  trifles  is  indicative  of  a  weak 
mind." 

OBS.  5. — This  construction  of  the  Adjective  should  be  carefully  dis- 
tinguished from  that  in  which  it  is  used  as  a  representative  of  an  Ad- 
verbial Phrase. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.   "  Caled  entered  every  day  early  and  returned  late." 

2.  "The  surging  billows  and   the   gamboling  storms 

come  crouching  to  his  feet." 

3.  "The  mind  was  well  informed,  the  passions  [were] 

held  subordinate,  and  diligence  was  choice." 

'*  Early" is  substituted  for  at  an  early  hour. 

"Late" "  "     at  a  late  hour. 

"  Crouching" "  "     in  a  crouching  attitude. 

"  Subordinate" "  "     in  a  subordinate  condition. 

Hence,  "early,"  "late,"  "crouching,"  and  "subordinate,"  are  to  be 
parsed — 

1.  As  Adverbs — being  used  as  representatives  of  Adverbial  Phrases. 

2.  But  in  the  analysis  of  these  Phrases,  these  words  are  to  be  parsed, 
in  their  individual  capacity,  as  Adjectives,  qualifying  their  Substantives 
understood. 

HEM. — For  Substantives  in  Predicate,  see  "Independent  Case." 

FORM. 

NOTE  IV. — Adjectives  used  in  Predicate  should  not 
take  the  Adverbial  form. 

EXAMPLES. 

Incorrect. — 1.  William  feels  badly  to-night.    2.  I  feel  sadly. 

3.  How  beautifully  it  looks  !          4.  It  appears  strangely  to  me,. 
Corrected.— William  feels  bad  to-night.     I  feel  sad. 

How  beautiful  it  looks !  It  appears  strange  to  me. 


ADJECTIVES POSITION.  249 

HEM.  — It  will  be  noticed  that  the  Adjective  in  Predicate  does  not 
modify  the  Verb.  It  describes  the  Subject  by  the  aid  of  the  Verb. 
Hence, 

OBS.  1. — Adverbs  are  not  used  as  a  part  of  the  Grammatical  Predicate. 

OBS.  2. — The  Verb  used  in  Predicate  with  an  Adjective  is  sometimes 
suppressed. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  "No    position,   however   exalted,   could    satisfy  his 

ambition. ' ' 
•2.   "A  man  may  grow  rich  by  seeming  poor." 

KEM. — "Exalted"  is  in  Predicate  with  "may  be,"  suppressed. 
"Poor"  "  "  "6«,M 


POSITION  OF  ADJECTIVES. 

OBS.  3. — An  Adjective  Word  is  commonly  placed  before  its  Noun  and 
after  its  Pronoun  :  an  Adjective  Phrase  -or  Se&nce  after  its  Noun  or 
Pronoun. 

EXAMPLES. 

Word. — 1.  An  influential  man. 
Phrase. — 2.  A  man  of  influence. 
Sentence. — 3.  A  man  who  possesses  influence. 

OBS.  4. — But  when  an  Adjective  Word  is  limited  or  modified  by  a 
Phrase,  it  is  commonly  placed  after  its  Noun. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.   "  Seest  thou  a  man  DILIGENT  in  his  business." 
2.  "Truth,  CRUSHED  to  earth,  will  rise  again." 

OBS.  5. — When  the  same  word  is  qualified  by  two  or  more  Adjectives, 
the  one  denoting  the  most  definite  quality  should  be  placed  next  it ; 
and,  when  one  Adjectives  specifies  and  the  other  qualifies,  the  Qualifying 
Adjective  is  placed  next  the  Noun. 

EXAMPLES.  —  1.   An  industrious  YOUNG  man. 

2.  A  large  SWEET  apple 

3.  "Sound  the  LOUD  timbrel  o'er  Egypt's  DARK  sea." 

NOTE  V. — An  Adjective  in  Predicate  is  placed  immedi- 
ately after  its  Verb  or  Participle. 


250  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR — PART  HI. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  "Which  MAKETII  glad  the  heart  of  man." 

2.  "  Canst  thou  GROW  sad  as  earth  GROWS  bright  ?" 

3.  **  His  palsied  hand  WAXED  strong." 

4.  *  *  And  the  eyes  of  the  sleepers  WAXED  deadly  and  chill.' ' 

5.  "How  various  his  employments  whom  the  world 

CALLS  idle. ' ' 

OBS.  1. — Exception  1. — When  the  Verb  is  Transitive,  its  Object  is 
sometimes  —  not  always  —  placed  between  it  and  the  Adjective  in 
Predicate. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  "  Vanity  often  RENDERS  man  contemptible.1' 
2.   "  Winter  MAKETH  the  light  heart  sac?." 

OBS.  2. — Exception  2. — For  the  sake  of  euphony,  for  emphasis,  or  for 
rhythm,  the  Adjective  is  sometimes  placed  before  the  Verb. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  "  Hard  is  my  fate,  cried  the  heart-broken  stranger." 

2.  "  Bloodless  ARE  these  limbs,  and  cold." 

3.  "Hard,  hard,  indeed,  WAS  the  contest  for  freedom." 

OBS.  3. — This  construction  should  be  carefully  distinguished  from 
that  in  which  the  Adjective  qualifies  the  Object  of  the  Verb. 

EXAMPLE. — "But  we  left  HIM  alone  with  his  glory." 


EXERCISES   IN   REVIEW. 

PAOl. 

232. — What  is  an  Adjunct  ? 

What  may  be  the  forms  of  Adjuncts. 

1.  "A  man  who  has  talents,  will  succeed  in  business." 

Condense  this  by  replacing  the  Sentence  Adjunct  by  a  Phrase. 

Replace  the  Phrase  by  an  equivalent  Word. 

Are  all  Adjunct  Words,  Phrases,  and  Se?itences  interchangeable?     ' 
234. — What  Elements  of  Sentences  may  be  affected  by  Adjuncts? 

How  are  Adjuncts  of  Substantives  to  be  parsed  ? 
235. — How  are  Logical  Adjuncts  commonly  construed  ? 

Repeat  RULE  7. — Make  Sentences  to  illustrate. 
In  what  distinct  methods  do  Adjectives  describe  Substantives  ? 
Is  a  Word  used  Adjectively  in  one  Sentence,  always  an  Adjective  ? 
Wherein  do  Adjectives  commonly  differ  inform  from  Substantives 
of  similar  signification  ? 

236. — Repeat  NOTE  I.— Make  Sentences  to  illustrate. 

What  Adjectives  are  commonly  used  in  Comparisons  qf  Equality? 


EXERCISES    IN   REVIEW.  251 

PAOK. 

237. — What  Word  introduces  the  second  term  of  the  Comparison  ? 
Supply  the  proper  Words  omitted  in  the  following  Sentences  : 

2.  "Anna  is— tall  as  Clarissa." 

3.  "Rachel  is  not — tall  as  Mary." 

Repeat  NOTE  II. — Make  Sentences  to  illustrate. 
What  Word  introduces  the  second  term  of  a  Comparison  of  In- 
equality ? 

4.  "  Delia  is  taller — Isabella,  but  not  fairer — Helen." 
Supply  the  proper  Words  in  the  above  Sentence. 

238.— Repeat  NOTE  IV.— Make  Sentences  to  illustrate. 

Correct  the  following  Sentences,  and  give  proper  authority  for 
each  criticism : 

5.  "Shakspeare   is  more  faithful  to  the  true  language  of 

Nature  than  any  writer."—  Blair. 

6.  "  Cibber  grants  it  to  be  a  better  poem  of  its  kind  than  ever 

was  written." — Pope. 

7.  "  The  Christian  religion  gives  a  more  lovely  character  of 

God  than  any  religion  ever  did." — Murray. 

8.  "Of  all  other  nations,  ours  has  the  best  form  of  government. 

It  is,  of  all  others,  that  which  most  moves  us." — Sheridan. 

239. — Repeat  NOTE  VII. — Make  Sentences  to  illustrate. 

Correct  the  following  errors  by  the  Note,  or  by  the  Observations  ; 
9.   "  Northern  Spy  is  fine  specimen  of  an  apple." 

10.  ' '  Lawrence  is  ab?er  mathematician  than  a  linguist. 

11.  "  The  highest  title  in  the  State  is  that  of  the  Governor." 

12.  "  Organic  chemistry  treats  of  the  animal  and  vegetable 

kingdom." 

13.  "  The  north  and  south  poles  are  indicated  on  the  map." 

14.  "  Mary,  widow  of  the  late  Col.  Clark,  and  the  mother  of 

the  Governor,  resides  with  us." 

240. — Repeat  NOTE  VIII. — Make  Sentences  to  illustrate. 

15.  "Substitutes  have  three  Persons;  the  First,  Second,  and 

the  Third." — Piercers  Grammar. 

16.  "In  some  cases  we  can  use  either  the  Nominative  or  Ac- 

cusative, promiscuously." — Adams  Latin  Grammar. 

17.  "I  doubt  his  capacity  to  teach  either  the  French  or  English 

languages. ' ' 

18.  "The  passive  and  neuter  verbs  I  shall  reserve  for  some 

future  consideration." — Inyersott's  Grammar. 

19.  "  JZh&s  a  long  and  short  sound!" — Btekndl's  Grammar. 


252  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR PART   III. 

MMM 

20.  "The  perfect  participle  and  imperfect  tense  ought  not  to 

be  confounded. ' '  — Murray. 

21.  "There  is,  however,  another,  and  a  more  limited  sense." 

22.  "Novelty  produces  in  the  mind  a  vivid  and  an  agreeable 

emotion." — Blair. 

23.  "Jewell  the  poet  and  the  professor  of  English  literature 

has  criticised  it. ' ' 

241. — Repeat  NOTE  X. — Make  Sentences  to  illustrate. 
Correct  the  following  errors  : 

24.  "  I  have  not  been  in  London  this  five  years." 

25.  "If  I  had  not  left  off  troubling  you  about  those  kind  of 

things.  "—Swift. 

26.  ' c  They  are  these  kind  of  gods  which  Horace  mentions. ' ' 

27.  "Many  things  are  not  that  which  they  appear  to  be." 

242. — Repeat  NOTE  XI. — Make  Sentences  to  illustrate. 
Correct  the  following  errors  : 

28.  "  The  wall  is  ten  foot  high."—  Harrison's  Grammar. 

29.  "A  close  prisoner,  in  a  room  twenty  foot  square." — Locke. 

30.  "These  verses  consist  of  two  sort  of  rhymes." — Formey. 

31.  "  "Tis  for  a  thousand  pound." — Cowper. 

Repeat  RULE  8. — Make  Sentences  to  illustrate. 
Correct  the  following  errors  : 

32.  "I  have  neither  John  nor  Eliza's  books." — Nixon. 

33.  "  James  relieves  neither  the  boy  nor  the  girl's  distress." 

34.  "Which,  for  distinction  sake,  I  shall  put  down  severally." 

35.  "King  James  translators  merely  revised  former  transla- 

tions . ' '  — Frazee'  s  Grammar. 

243. — Repeat  NOTE  I. — Make  Sentences  to  illustrate. 

244. — Repeat  NOTE  II. — Make  Sentences  to  illustrate. 
Correct  the  following  errors  : 

36.  <:  The  General  in  the  army's  name,  published  a  declara- 

tion."— Hume. 

37.  "The  bill   passed  the  Lord's  house,  but  failed  in  the 

Commons." 

38.  "  It  is  curious  enough  that  this  Sentence  of  the  bishop  is, 

itself,  ungrammatical." — Cobbett' s  Grammar. 

39.  "  We  should  presently  be  sensible  of  the  melody  suffering. ' ' 

40.  "  This  depends  on  their  being  more  or  less  emphatic,  and 

on  the  vowel-sound  being  long  or  short." 


ADVERBS. 


253 


41.  "  Whose  principles  forbid  them  taking  part  in  the  ad- 

ministration of  the  government  " — Liberator. 

247. — Repeat  NOTE  III.— Make  Sentences  to  illustrate. 

248. — Repeat  NOTE  IV. — Make  Sentences  to  illustrate. 
Correct  the  following  errors  : 

42.  "The  group  of  little  misses  appeared  most  lovely  and 

beautifully. ' ' 

43.  "  Heaven  opened  widely  her  everlasting  gates." 

44.  "  The  poor  girl  feels  very  badly  about  it." — Hawley. 

45.  "The  sight  appeared  terribly  to  me." 

46.  "  Did  not  Lois  look  most  beautifully  at  the  lecture  ?" 

ADVERBS. 

RULE  9. — Adverbs  belong  to  Verbs,  Adjectives,  and 
other  Adverbs  which  they  modify. 

OBS.  1. — An  Adverb  may  consist  of  a  Word,  a  Phrase,  or  a  Sentence. 

EXAMPLES. 

Word. — 1.  I  shall  go  soon. 
Phrase.— 2.  I  shall  go  in  a  short  time. 
Sentence. — 3.  I  shall  go  ere  day  departs. 


OBS.  2. — An  Adverb  may  modify  a  Word,  a  Phrase,  or  a  Sentence. 

EXAMPLES.  f  Wilian, 

1.  William  STUDIES  diligently. 
"Diligently"  modifies  a  Word. 

2.  Arthur  went  almost  TO  BOSTON. 
"Almost"  modifies  a  Phrase. 


3.    "  Not  AS  THE  CONQUEROR  COMES, 

They,  the  true-hearted,  came." 
'  Not"  modifies  a  Sentence. 


22 


254:  ENGLISH    GKAMMAB — PAKT   III. 

ADVERBIAL  WORDS. 

NOTE  I. — In  the  use  of  Adverbs,  that  form  should  be 
adopted  which  is  in  accordance  with  the  best  authority. 

OBS.  1. — Most  Adverbs  are  derivative  words,  and  are  generally  formed 
by  adding  ly  (formerly  written  lie— a  contraction  of  like)  to  its 
Primitive. 

EXAMPLES — 1.  A  just  man  will  deal  justly. 

2.  A  foolish  man  will  act  foolishly. 

OBS.  2. — When  an  Adjective  supplies  the  place  of  an  Adverb,  by 
representation,  the  Adjective  form  should  be  retained. 

EXAMPLES. 

1.  The  house  was  painted  green. 

2.  Open  thy  mouth  wide. 

Expanded. — 1.  The  house  was  painted  with  green  paint. 

2.  Open  thy  mouth  to  a  wide  extent. 
•'  Green'1  and  "wide"  are  Adverbs  by  representation. 

OBS.  3. — This  construction  should  be  carefully  distinguished  from 
that  of  Adjectives  in  Predicate. 

EXAMPLES. 

Correct. — 1.  The  orange  tasted  sweet .  _^ v 

2.  Velvet  feds  smooth.  C  °™ge.X  ta8ted  ,  "weet  ) 

3.  Some  deemed  him  wondrous  wise.  * 

4.  The  grass^looks  green. 
Incorrect. — 1.  The  orange  tasted  sweetly. 

2.  Velvet  feels  smoothly. 

3.  Some  deemed  him  wondrous  wisely. 

4.  The  grass  looks  greenly. 

OBS.  4. — The  words  which  Adverbs  properly  modify  ar«  sometimes 
suppressed. 

EXAMPLE. — "  Thou  canst  but  add  one  bitter  woe 
To  those  [     ]  already  tliere  ' ' 
To  those  which  are  already  there. 

QBS  5. — Adverbs  sometimes  supply  the  place  of  Verbs  which  they 
modify. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  "  Back  to  thy  punishment,  false  fugitive." 
&  "  /'#  away  to  the  pleasant  land." 


NEGATIVE   ADVERBS.  255 

OBS.  G.—  Many  words,  commonly  used  as  Adverbs,  often  take  the 
place  of  Nouns,  and  become  Pronouns. 

EXAMPLES.— 1.  Till  then— for  till  that  time. 

2.  From  thence — for  from  that  place. 

3.  And  I  have  made  a  pilgrimage  from  far. — ffosmer. 

4.  "0,  let  the  ungentle  spirit  learn  from  hence, 

A  small  unkindness  is  a  great  offense." 

OBS.  7. — Participles  become  Adverbs  whenever  they  indicate  the 
manner  of  an  action  or  modify  a  quality. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  "  'Tis  strange,  'tis  passing  strange." 

2.   "A  virtuous  household,  but  exceeding  poor."    \ 

OBS.  8. — But  most  Participial  Adverbs  have  the  suffix  ly  added. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  "  He  spoke  feelingly  on  that  subject." 

2.  She  conducted  herself  most  lovingly  throughout  the 
play." 

OBS.  9. — Or  they  become  Adverbs  by  representation. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  "  Now  it  mounts  the  wave, 

And  rises,  threatening,  to  the  frowning  sky." 
2.  "  The  surging  billows  and  the  gamboling  storms 
Come,  crouching,,  to  his  feet." 

"  Come"  in  a  "  crouching"  attitude.     [See  Obs.  2,  above,  also  p.  23.] 

OBS.  10. — A  few  words,  commonly  employed  as  Prepositions,  are 
sometimes  used  Adverbially. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  "Thou  didst  look  down  upon  the  naked  earth." 

2.  "  And  may,  at  last,  my  weary  age 

Find  out  the  peaceful  hermitage." 

3.  "  Master  Sir  Philip,  you  may  come  in.J> 

NEGATIVE  ADVERBS. 

NOTE  II. — But  one  Negative  Word  or  Particle  should 
be  used  in  asserting  a  negative  proposition.     For, 

OBS.  1.— Two  Negatives  applied  to  the  same  act  or  quality  make  it 
affirmative. 

EXAMPLES. — 1 .  '  *  Not  withow*  cause. ' ' 

2.  "  Such  occurrences  are  not  wnfrequent." 
8,  "  Nw  did  he  not  perceive  them." 


256  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR  -  PART   III. 

OBS.  2.  —  Negative  Prefixes  in  derivative  words  have  the  same  force 
as  Negative  Adverbs. 

EXAMPLES.  —  1.  "  He  was  not  wwmindful  of  his  obligations." 

2.  **  Such  expressions  are  not  melegant." 

3.  "That  costume  would  not  be  ^appropriate  to  the 

occasion." 

HEM.  1.  —  Such  expressions  have  not  always  the  full  force  of  the  cor- 
responding affirmative  assertions,  but  serve  to  negative  the  negative 
assertion. 

OBS.  3.—  (a)  Negative  Adverbs  are  used  primarily  to  modify  Verbs. 
EXAMPLES.  —  1.  '  '  They  wept  NOT.  '  ' 
(5)  To  modify  Adjectives. 

2.  NOT  one  of  the  family  was  there. 

3.  *  *  NOT  every  one  that  saith  unto  me,  'Lord!  Lord  I' 

shall  enter  into  the  kingdom  of  heaven." 

4.  *'  Not  all  that  run  a  race  shall  win  the  prize.' 
(c)  To  modify  other  Adverbs  —  Words  ,  Phrases,  or  Sentences. 

Word.  --5.  He  is  NOT  generally  in  error. 
Phrase.  —  6.   "  They  died  xor  by  hunger  or  lingering  decay, 

The  steel  of  the  white  man  hath  swept  them  away." 
Sentence.  —  7.   "  NOT  as  the  conqueror  comes, 

They,  the  true-hearted,  came." 

!REM.  —  The  influence  of  the  Negatives,  not,  neither,  etc.,  is  often 
exerted  on  Nouns,  Phrases,  and  whole  Sentences.  And,  generally, 
when  a  Negative  occurs  in  connection  with  other  Adjuncts,  the  influ- 
ence of  the  Negative  reaches  the  whole  proposition,  including  the 
other  Adjuncts.  Thus,  in  Example  6,  "not"  modifies  the  phrase,  "fo/ 
hunger  or  lingering  decay.'"  And  in  Example  7,  "  not"  negatives  the  sen- 
tence '  *  as  the  conqueror  comes.  '  ' 


the  word  unot,"  in  Sentences  6  and  7,  be  parsed  by  a 
devotee  of  those  systems  of  grammar  that  ignore  the  etymological 
offices  of  Phrases  and  of  Sentences.  Will  he  not  also  "  ignore"  com- 
mon sense  ?  Does  "not"  modify  "  died  ?"  Then  they  are  still  living  ! 

OBS.  4.  —  The  Adverbs,  yes,  yea,  no,  nay,  are  independent  in  con- 
struction. 

HEM.  —  The  relation  of  these  words  to  others  in  the  sentence  or 
period  is  logical  rather  than  grammatical.  Their  grammatical  relation 
is  generally  to  Elements  in.  Sentences  suppre»ed. 


POSITION    OF   ADYEKBS.  257 

POSITION  or  ADVERBS. 

III. — The  Position  of  Adverbs  should  be  such  as 
most  clearly  to  convey  the  sense  intended. 

OBS.  1. — Adverbs  which  modify  Verbs  generally  precede  a  Single 
Verb  in  Predicate. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.   "  Man  naturally  SEEKS  his  own  happiness." 

2.   "  Then,  when  I  am  thy  captive,  TALK  of  chains." 

OBS.  2. — When  the  Predicate  consists  of  more  than  one  word,  the 
Adverb  is  commonly  placed  after  the  first  word  in  Predicate. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  "We  CAN  not  HONOR  our  country  with  too  deep  a 
reverence." 

2.  "I  HAVE  always  BEEN  an  admirer  of  happy  human 

faces." 

3.  "I  WILL  never  LEAVE  thee  nor  FORSAKE  thee." 

OBS.  3. — Adverbs  modifying  Adjectives    are    placed  before  their 
Adjectives. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.   "We  can  not  honor  our  country  with  too  DEEP  a 
reverence." 

2.  ' '  We  can  not  love  her  with  an  affection  too  PURE  and 

FERVENT.'7 

3.  "  The  very  RICH  man  can  never  be  truly  HAPPY." 

4.  "  The  selfish  man  can  never  be  truly  POLITE." 

Exception. — The  word  enough,  used  Adverbially,  is  commonly  placed 
after  its  Adjective. 

OBS.  4. — Adverbs  are  placed  before   other  Adverbs   which    they 
modify. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.   "  How  LIGHTLY  mounts  the  muse's  wing." 

2.  "  Too  LOW  they  build,  who  build  beneath  the  stars." 

3.  "  Shepard's  mill  is  driven  partly  BY  WATER  said  partly 

BY  STEAM." 

4.  "  They  died  not  BY  HUNGER  NOR  LINGERING  DECAY." 
6.   "  Some  work  only  FOB.  PLEASURE." 

OBS.  5. — Adverbial  Phrases  are  commonly  placed  after  the  words 
which  they  modify. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.   "  There  CAME  to  the  beach  a  poor  exile  of  Erin." 

2.  "  Time  SLEPT  on  flowers  and  LENT  his  glass  to  Hope." 

3.  "The  firmament  GROWS  BRIGHTER  with  every  golden 

grain.1' 

22* 


253  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR PART   III. 

OBS.  6.  —Adverbial  Sentences  are  commonly  placed  after  the  words 
which  they  modify. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  "The  firmament  GROWS  BRIGHTER  with  every  golden 

grain, 

As  handful  after  handful  falls  on  the  azure  plain  " 
2.  "  And  1  am  GLAD  that  he  has  lived  thus  long." 

REM. — To  the  above  rules  for  the  Position  of  Adverbial  Elements 
there  are  numerous  exceptions.  No  specific  rules  can  be  given  which 
will  always  be  applicable.  The  judgment  and  taste  of  the  writer  are 
required  to  decide  as  to  the  Position  of  all  the  Elements  of  Sentences. 

Jg*i**  Let  the  Pupils  correct  the  following 

ERRORS. 

1.  "A  Christian  should  always  act  benevolent." 

2.  The  fields  look  greenly. 

3.  Some  of  the  pupils  looked  sadly,  and  others  looked  gladly. 

4.  Never  bestow  your  favors  grudging. 

6.  Every  one  that  runs  a  race  shall  not  win  the  prize. 

6.  Every  one  that  does  not  run  a  race  shall  win  the  prize. 

7.  I  have  been  always  a  lover  of  children.  ___ 

8.  Some  only  work  for  pleasure.    [So  they  never  play  for  pleasure  ?] 

9.  That  hat  was  expressly  made  for  me. 

10.  "The  comparative  degree  can  only  be  used  in  reference  to  two 
objects." — Brown's  Grammar,  p.  140. 

QUESTIONS   FOR   REVIEW. 

PAGE. 

253.— Repeat  RULE  8. 

An  Adverbial  Element  may  consist  of  what  ? 

Make  Sentences  to  illustrate  Obs.  1. 

Adverbs  may  modify  what  sorts  of  Elements  ? 

Make  Sentences  to  illustrate  Obs.  2. 

Repeat  NOTE  I. 

How  are  Adverbs,  derived  from  Adjectives  and  Nouns,  formed? 
254. — When  may  the  Adjective  form  be  retained? 

Make  Sentences  to  illustrate  Obs.  3. 

"Cora  feels  happily  to-night." 

Correct  that  Sentence  by  Obs.  3.     [See  also  p.  249.] 

When  are  Participles  used  Adverbially  ? 
255. — Make  Examples  adapted  to  Obs.  7. 

Make  Examples  adapted  to  Obs.  8. 

Make  Examples  adapted  to  Oba.  10. 


EXERCISES   IN   ANALYSIS.  259 

NEGATIVE  ADVERBS. 

PA  OB. 

255.— Repeat  NOTE  II. 

"  I  have  not  seen  none  of  your  books." 
Correct  that  Sentence  by  Obs.  1. 
"  "Warner  was  not  unwillirfg  to  go  to  school.'* 
Make  an  equivalent  Sentence.     [See  Obs.  2.] 

256. — What  is  there  peculiar  in  the  use  of  Negative  Adverbs? 
Make  Sentences  to  illustrate  Obs.  3. 

POSITION  OF  ADVERBS. 
257.— Repeat  NOTE  III. 

What  is  the  usual  position  of  Adverbial  Words  ? 

William  studies  commonly  diligently  very. 

Correct  that  Sentence  by  Obs.  1  and  4. 

'*  I never  will  disturb  my  quiet  with  the  affairs  of  state." 

Correct  that  by  Obs.  2. 

"  The  day  was  pleasant  very,  amd  the  wind  fair  exceedingly." 

Correct  that  by  Obs.  3. 

What  is  the  usual  position  of  Adverbial  Phrases  ? 

Make  Sentences  to  illustrate  Obs.  5. 

258. — What  is  the  usual  position  of  Adverbial  Sentences  ? 
Make  Complex  Sentences  to  illustrate  Obs.  6. 

EXERCISES    IN   ANALYSIS. 

"  How  dear  to  my  heart  are  the  scenes  of  my  childhood, 


ANALYSIS. 

INTRANSITIVE 


-,  (  The  Subject "  Scenes' '        )  INTRANSITT 

PRINCIPAL  ELEMENTS,  -j  The  Pr^icate „  Are  dear.»  }   SENTENCE. 

(  "The" A  Word. 

Of  the  Sutyect. ...   j  u  Of  my  childhood" A  Phrase. 


ADJUNCTS.  - 


{"How" A  Word. 
"  To  my  heart"  . .             .  .  A  Phrase. 
-  When  fond  Recollection  )  A  -.___ 
presents  them  to  view. "  ) 


260  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR PART   HI. 

PARSED  BY  THE  CHART. 

"How" An  Element  in  the  Sentence — Adjunct— Primary — 

Yford — Adverb — of  Degree.      [Repeat  RULE  0.] 
"Dear" An  Element  in  the  Sentence — Principal  Part — "in 

Predicate' ' — Adjective.    [Repeat  NOTE  III.  to  RULE  7.] 
"  To  my  heart"  ..  An   Element    in   the   Sentence — Adjunct — Phrase — 

Adverbial  —  Prepositional  —  Intransitive.      [  Repeat 

RULE  9.] 
"  Are" An  Element  in  the  Sentence — Principal  Element — in 

Predicate — Verb  —  Indicative  Mode — Present  Tense — 

agreeing  in   Person   and  Number  with   "scenes." 

[Repeat  RULE  2.] 
"  The" An    Element    in    the    Sentence — Adjunct — Word — 

Specifying — Pure.     [See  RULE  7.] 
"Scenes" An   Element    in    the    Sentence — Principal   Part — 

Subject — Word — Noun — Common — Third    Person — 

Plural  Number — Nominative  Case.     [Repeat  RULE  1.] 

"Of  my  child-/  An  Element  in  the   Sentence — Adjunct — Phrase — 

hood" f  Adjective  —  Prepositional  —  Intransitive.       [Repeat 

RULE  7.] 

"Wh(fn     fond  )  An  Element  in  the  Principal  Sentence— Adjunct- 
Recollection      (    ~  .   ,        ,  .   ,       „.        .         m          .,.  ^ 

presents  them  f  Sentence— Adverbial— Simple— Transitive.     [Repeat 
to  view."  ...  )  RULE  9.] 

REM.  1. — For  the  Analysis  of  the  Phrases,  "To  my  heart,"  and  "  Of 
my  childhood,"  seep.  185. 

REM.  2  —The  Auxiliary  Sentence,  "When  fond  Recollection  presents 
them  to  view, ' '  may  now  be  analyzed  by  the  above  formula,  as  a  dis- 
tinct Sentence. 

PARTICIPLES. 

RULE  10. — A  Participle  has  the  same  construction  as  the 
"  part  of  speech"  for  which  it  is  used. 

I.  PARTICIPLES  USED  AS  NOUNS. 

NOTE  I.  — A  Participle  used  as  a  Noun  may  be — 
1.  The  Subject  of  a  Sentence. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.   "The  BEGINNING  of  strife  is  as  when  one  letteth  out 
water." 


PARTICIPLES. 


261 


2.  "  The  PLOWING  of  the  wicked  t*  sin." 

3.  lt  Taking  a  madman's  sword  to  prevent  his  doing  mis- 

chief, CAN  NOT  BE  REGARDED  as  robbing  him." 


2.  The  Object  of  a  Verb. 

4.  "I  doubted  his  having  been  a  soldier." 

5.  "While  you  strive  to  bear  BEING  LAUGHED  AT." 

6.  "Taking  a  madman's  sword  to  PREVENT  his  doing  mis- 

chief, can  not  be  regarded  as  robbing  him.' 

3.  The  Object  of  a  Preposition. 

7.  "7/1  the  BEGINNING." 

8.  "  Poverty  turns  our  thoughts  too  much  upon  the  SUP- 

PLYING of  our  wants  :  Riches  uvon  ENJOYING  our 
superfluities. ' ' — Addison. 

9.  "Taking  a  madman's  sword  to  prevent  his  doing 

mischief,  can  not  be  regarded  AS  robbing  him." 

NOTE  II. — A  Participle  used  as  a  Noun^  i.  e.,  as  the 
name  of  an  action,  retains  its  Verbal  character,  and  may 
be  followed  by  an  Object  when  it  is  the  leader  of  a  Par- 
ticipial Phrase. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  "They  could  not  avoid  GIVING  offense.19 

2.  * '  Its  excesses  may  be  restrained  without  DESTROYING 

its  existence.'1 

3.  RECEIVING  goods,  known  to  be  stolen,  is  a  criminal 

offense. 

4.  We  have  succeeded  in  MAKING  A  BEGINNING. 

REM. — "Giving  offense"  is  a  Substantive  Phrase — Object  of  the  Verb 
''avoid."  "Giving"  is  the  Leader  of  the  Phrase.  "Offense"  is  the 
Subsequent — Object  of  "giving." 

In  Sentence  4,  "Making  a  beginning"  is  a  Substantive  Pnrase — 
©fcject  of  th«  Preposition  "im."  "Making"  u  the  Leader  of  the 


262  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR PART   III. 

P.irticipial    Phrase;    "beginning"    is    the    Subsequent — Object    of 
"making."     [See  also  the  preceding  diagram.] 

DBS.  1. — A  Participle,  being  the  Leader  of  a  Participial  Phrase,  often 
has  its  Subject  suppressed. 

HEM. — In  Sentence  1,  above,  "they"  is  the  implied  agent  of  the 
action  expressed  by  "giving." 

In  Sentences  2  and  3,  the  agents  of  "destroying"  and  of  "receiving" 
are  neither  expressed  nor  implied. 

In  Sentence  4,  "we"  is  the  implied  Subject  of  "  making." 

NOTE  III. — The  agent  of  an  action  expressed  by  a  Par- 
ticiple is  sometimes  expressed,  and  is  generally  in  the 
Possessive  Form. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  "  We  have  heard  of  his  GOING  to  the  Falls." 

2.  "I  doubted  his  HAVING  BEEN  a  soldier. ' ' 

3.  "  Mr.  Burton  objected  to  his  son's  JOINING  the  army." 

NOTE  IV. — The  sign  of  the  Possessive  Case  of  Nouns 
and  Pronouns,  used  as  the  Logical  Subjects  of  Participles, 
should  not  be  omitted. 

EXAMPLES. 

Improper  Construction. — 1.   "A  fair  wind  is  the  cause  of  a  vessel  sailing." 
2.  He  opposed  me  going  to  college. 

Corrected. — 1.  A  fair  wind  is  the  cause  of  a  vessel's  sailing. 
2.  He  opposed  my  going  to  college. 

OBS.  1  —The  Logical  Subject  of  a  Participle  may  be  in  the  Objective 
Case  only  as  the  Object  of  a  Preposition. 

EXAMPLES.— 1.   "  The  PLOWING  of  the  wicked  is  sin." 

2.  '  *  By  the  CROWING  of  the  cock,  we  knew  that  morning 
was  nigh." 

HEM. — "Cock"  is  the  Object  of  the  Preposition  "of,"  and  is  there- 
fore in  the  Objective  Case.  But  it  is  also  the  Agent  of  the  Action 
implied  in  the  word  "crowing  ;"  and  is,  therefore,  the  Logical  Subject 
of  the  Verbal  Noun  "  crowing." 

OBS.  2. — Phrases  thus  used  as  Adjuncts  of  Participle*  are  sometime* 


PARTICIPLES   USED   AS   NOUNS. 


263 


equivalent  to  Possessive  Specifying  Adjectives,  and,  therefore,  are  in- 
terchangeable. 

EXAMPLES.  —  1.  The  crowing  of  the  cock.—  The  cock's  crowing. 
2.   "  We  listened  to  the  singing  of  tlie  children." 
We  listened  to  the  children's  singing. 

OBS.  3.—  The  Definitive,  the,  should  be  placed  before  a  Verbal  Noun 
whose  Logical  Subject  is  the  Object  of  the  Preposition  of. 

EXAMPLE.  —  "The  PLOWING  of  the  ivicked  is  sin." 

OBS.  4.—  The  Definitive,  the,  should  not  be  placed  before  a  Verbal 
Noun  whose  Logical  Subject  is  in  the  Possessive  Case. 

EXAMPLE.  —  "You  object  to  my  PLOWING  the  garden  so  early." 

NOTE  Y.  —  A  Participle  used  to  introduce  a  Participial 
Phrase,  has  the  same  construction  as  the  Phrase  which  it 
introduces. 


1.   "  Suspecting  the  treachery  of  our  guide,  WE  made  PREPARATIONS  for 
defending  ourselves  from  any  hostile  attacks." 

Here  "suspecting"  and  "defending"  are  Participles,  each  used  to  in- 
troduce a  Participial  Phrase  ;  but 


"  Suspecting  the  treachery  of  our 
guide'  shows  a  condition  of  "WE." 
Hence,  an  Adjective  Phrase. 

"Suspecting"  describes  "we," 
by  expressing  incidentally,  an  act 
of  "we."  Hence,  a  Verbal  Ad- 
jective. 


'  *  Defending  ourselves1 '  is  a  Parti- 
cipial Phrase — Object  of  the  Prep- 
osition "for."  Hence,  a  Substan- 
tive Phrase. 

* '  Defending1 '  is  the  name  of  an 
act,  Object  of  the  Preposition 
'  *  for. ' '  Hence,  a  Verbal  Noun. 


2.  Suspicious  of  the  treachery  of  our  guides,  we  made  preparations 
for  defense. 

"  Suspicious"  describes  "we"  by  i  "Defense'  is  a  name,  Object  of 
expressing  a  condition  or  state  of  the  Preposition  "for."  Hence,  a 
"«?«."  Hence,  au  Adjective.  |  Noun. 


264 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR PART   HI. 

II.  PARTICIPLES  USED  AS  ADJECTIVES. 


I. — A  Participle  used  as  an  Adjective  belongs 
to  a  Noun  or  a  Pronoun  which  it  describes ;  and  may  be 
modified  by  Adverbs. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  "  Whose  visages 

Do  cream  and  mantle  like  a  STANDING  pond. ' ' 

2.  "  Scaling  yonder  peak,  I  saw  an  EAGLE 

Wheeling  near  its  brow." 

3.  "We  saw  IT  plunging  'mid  the  billowy  strife, 

And  dashing  madly  on  to  fearful  doom." 

BEM.  1. — "Scaling  yonder  peak"  is  a  Phrase — Adjunct  of  "I;" 
hence,  Adjective.  "  Wheeling  near  its  brow"  is  a  Participial  Phrase — 
Adjunct  of  "eagle;"  hence,  Adjective.  "Near  its  brow"  is  a  Prepo- 
sitional Phrase — Adjunct  of  "  wheeling  ;"  hence,  Adverbial. 

In  Sentence  3,  "  'Mid  the  billowy  strife"  is  an  Adjunct  of  "  plung- 
ing." "  Madly,"  and  "  on,"  and  "  to  fearful  doom,"  being  Adjuncts 
of  "dashing,"  are  Adverbs. 

OBS.  1. — The  Participle,  used  as  an  Element  in  an  Independent 
Phrase,  may  be  suppressed  when  the  sense  is  not  thereby  rendered 
obscure. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.   "Thus  talking,  hand  [    ]  in  hand,  alone  they  passed 

On  to  their  blissful  bower." — Milton. 
2.   "Now,  man  to  man  and  steel  to  steel, 

A  chieftain's  vengeance  thou  shalt  feel." 

HEM.  2. — It  should  be  remarked,  that  such  omissions  of  Participles 
occur  only  when  they  have  Adjuncts. 

BEM.  3.— In  analyzing  and  parsing  such  Adjuncts,  it  is  necessary  to 
restore  the  Participles  to  which  they  belong.  Thus,  "  in  hand''  is  a 
Phrase — Adjunct  of  being,  understood  ;  hence,  an  Adverbial  Phrase. 
"To  man"  is  an  Adjunct  of  being  opposed ',  understood. 


PARTICIPLES    USED   IN   PREDICATE.  265 

III.  PARTICIPLES  USED  AS  ADVERBS. 

NOTE  VII. — Participles  used  Adverbially,  belong  to 
Verbs,  Adjectives,  or  Adverbs,  which  they  modify. 

EXAMPLE. — Tis  strange  !  'tis  PASSING  strange. 

OBS.  2. — Participles  are  seldom  used  Adverbially  without  the  termi- 
nation ly. 

EXAMPLE. — "  He  spoke  FEELINGLY  on  that  subject." 

IV.  PARTICIPLES  USED  AS  PREPOSITIONS. 

NOTE  VIII. — A  Participle  used  as  a  Preposition  shows 
a  relation  of  its  object  to  the  word  which  its  Phrase 
qualifies. 

EXAMPLE. — "He  said  nothing  CONCERNING  his  temporal  affairs." 

OBS.  3. — The  young  scholar  often  finds  it  difficult  to  determine 
whether  a  Participle  is  used  as  a  Preposition  or  as  an  Adjective.  His 
difficulties  on  this  subject  will  vanish  when  he  recollects  that — 

1.  A  Participle  used  as  a  Preposition  does  not  relate  to  a  Noun  or  a  Pro- 
noun—it  generally  introduces  an  Adverbial  Phrase. 

2.  A  Participle  used  as  an  Adjective  always  relates  to  a  Noun  or  a  Pronoun 
— it  generally  introduces  an  Adjective  Phrase. 

V.  PARTICIPLES  USED  IN  PREDICATE  WITH  VERBS. 
NOTE  IX. — A  Participle  used  in  Predicate  asserts  an 
act,  being,  or  state,  and  may  be  modified  by  Adverbs. 

EXAMPLE. — "We  are  anxiously  EXPECTING  to  hear  from  William." 

NOTE  X. — In  the  use  or  Participles  in  Predicate,  the 
proper  modification  should  be  used. 

1.  When  an  action  is  to  be  predicated  of  the  Subject, 
i.  e.,  when  the  Subject  performs  the  act,  the  Active  Parti- 
ciple should  be  used. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  Henry  is  RECITING  his  lesson. 

2.  People  are  building  the  church. 

2.  When  the  Subject  is  to  be  represented  as  receiving 
the  action,  the  Passive  Participle  should  be  used. 


266  ENGLISH    GKAMMAR  -  PAET   III. 

EXAMPLES.  —  1.  Henry's  lesson  is  BEING  RECITED. 
2.  The  church  is  being  built. 


XI.  —  The  Participial  Phrase  should  not  be  em- 
ployed when  the  use  of  the  Infinitive  Phrase  would  be 
more  elegant. 

EXAMPLES.  —  1.   "  If  the  case  stands  thus,  'tis  dangerous  drinking" 
Better.  —  If  the  case  stands  thus,  'tis  dangerous  to  drink. 

2.  "It  deserves  remarking."  —  Harris  s  Hermes. 
Better.  —  It  deserves  to  be  remarked. 

3.  "He  refused  complying  with  the  regulations." 
Better.  —  He  refused  to  comply  with  the  regulations. 

NOTE  XII.  —  The  Participial  Phrase  should  be  used  in 
preference  to  a  Sentence,  or  any  other  more  complicated 
construction,  which  would  express  the  same  idea. 

EXAMPLES. 

Sentence.  —  1.  As  I  was  scaling  yonder  peak,  I  saw  an  eagle,  which  was 
ici'teeling  near  its  brow. 

Complex  Prepositional  Phrase.  —  2.  On  scaling  yonder  peak,  I  saw  an 
eagle  in  the  act  of  wheeling  near  its  brow. 

Participial  Phrase.  —  3  .  Scaling  yonder  peak,  I  saw  an  eagle  wheeling  near 
its  brow. 

HEM.  —  These  Sentences  are  all  grammatically  correct  ;  but  the  last 
gives  the  sentiment  fully,  and  has  the  advantage  of  being  the  most 
concise,  and  is  therefore  to  be  preferred. 

OBS.  —  The  Logical  Subject  of  a  Participle  may  be  suppressed  only 
when  the  construction  is  sufficiently  clear  without  it. 

EXAMPLES. 

Incorrect.  —  1.   "Having  resigned  his  commission,  the  company  was 

disbanded." 

2.  "Counting  the  women  and  the  children,  the  company 
was  ascertained  to  be  too  large  for  the  accommo- 
dations. * 
Correct.  —  1.  (a)  He  having  resigned  his  commission,  the  company  was 

disbanded. 

or     (b)  The  captain  having  resigned  his  commission,  the 
company  was  disbanded. 


THE    INFINITIVE   VERB.  267 

Correct. — 2.  (c)  On  counting  the  women  and  the  children,  the  com- 
pany was  found  to  be  too  large  for  the  accom- 
modations. 

or  (d)  The  women  and  the  children  being  counted,  the 
company  was  found  to  be  too  large  for  the  accom- 
modations. 

or  (e)  Counting  the  women  and  the  children,  we  found 
that  the  company  was  too  large  for  the  accommo- 
dations. 


EXERCISES    IN   REVIEW. 

the  errors  in  the  following  Sentences  be  corrected  by  a 
proper  application  of  the  NOTES  and  OBSERVATIONS  under  RULE  9. 

1.  "It  requires  no  nicety  of  ear  as  in  the  distinguishing  of  tones, 

or  measuring  time." — Sheridan. 

2.  "He  mentions  Newton's  writing  of  a  commentary."  ^ 

3.  "  The  cause  of  their  salvation  does  not  so  much  arise  from  their 

embracing  of  mercy,  as  from  God's  exercising  of  it." 

4.  "Those  who  accuse  us  of  denying  of  it,  belie  us." — Bentty. 

5.  "In  the  choice  they  had  made  of  him  for  restoring  of  order." 

6.  "The  Governor's  veto  was  writing  while  the  final  vote  was  tak- 

ing in  the  Senate. ' ' 

7.  "To  prevent  it  bursting  out  with  open  violence." — Robertson. 

8.  "This  must   prevent  any  regular  proportion  of  time   being 

settled.' ' — Sheridan. 

9.  "  The  compiler  proposed  publishing  that  part  by  itself." — Adams. 

10.  "  Artaxerxes  could  not  refuse  pardoning  him." — Goldsmith. 

11.  "  They  refused  doing  so." — Harris. 

12.  "  Entering  the  cars,  the  seats  were  found  to  be  all  occupied." 


THE    INFINITIVE   VERB. 

RULE  11. — A  Verb  in  the  Infinitive  Mode  is  the  Object 
of  the  Preposition  to,  expressed  or  understood. 

HEM. — A  Verb  in  the  Infinitive  Mode  is  commonly  used  as  the  Sub- 
sequent of  an  Infinitive  Phrase.  Hence,  it  is  an  Element,  not  in  a 
Sentence,  but  in  a  Phrase. 

OES.  1. — The  Infinitive  Verb  partakes  much  of  a  Substantive  charac- 
ter, generally  expressing  the  name  of  an  act,  being,  or  state. 


268 


ENGLISH   GRAMMAR — PART  ILL 

EXAMPLES. 


We  are  prepared  to  act. 
Equivalent.  — We  are  prepared  for  action. 


OBS.  2. — The  Infinitive  Verb.is  never  used  as  a  grammatical  Predicate; 
hence,  it  has  no  grammatical  Subject.  But  it  is  often  the  logical  Pred' 
Icate  of  a  Noun  or  a  Pronoun,  which  may  be  in  the  Nominative  or  in 
the  Objective  Case. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.,  We  love  to  study. 

2.  We  requested  him  to  spealc. 

HEM. — "  We,"  the  grammatical  Subject  of  "love,"  is  also  the  logical 
Subject  of  "  study." 

"  Him,'* the  grammatical  Object  of  "requested,"  is  the  logical  Subject 
of  "speak." 

NOTE  I. — Infinitive  Verbs  following  the  Verbs  bid,  but, 
dare,  feel,  hear,  let,  make,  need,  see,  and  sometimes  behold, 
have,  help,  know,  observe,  perceive,  and  some  others,  do  not 
require  the  Preposition  to. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.   "  I  plunged  in  and  BADE  him  follow." 

2.  "He  DARES  not  touch  a  hair  of  Catiline." 

3.  "  LET  me  hear  thy  voice  awake." 

4.  "  Clara  HELPED  me  ivork  that  problem." 

5.  "I  can  not  BUT  swpect  that  she  assisted  Cora  too/ 

6.  "I  would  not  HAVE  you  go  to-day." 

7.  "Necessity  COMMANDS  me  name  myself." 

OBS.  3.— The  Infinitive  Verb,  with  its  Preposition,  is  often  sup- 
pressed. 

EXAMPLES. 

1 .  "  Some   deemed    hirn  wondrous 

wise." 

2.  "  Intemperance  makes  a  man  [    ] 

a  fool." 
OBS.  4. — The  Infinitive  is  sometimes  elegantly  used  for  other  Modes. 

EXAMPLES. 

1.  "I  am  to  settle  this  business." — 
Arthur. 

Equivalent. — I  must  settle  this  busi- 
ness. 


THE   INFINITIVE   VERB.  269 

OBS.  6.  —The  Preposition  to  should  not  be  replaced  by  the  Conjunc- 
tion and. 

Incorrect. — Try  and  do  as  well  as  possible. 
Corrected. — Try  to  do  as  well  as  possible. 

THE  INFINITIVE  PHRASE. 

OBS.  6. — The  Infinitive  Verb  with  its  Preposition  constitutes  an 
Infinitive  Phrase,  and  may  be  construed  as  a  Substantive,  an  Adjective,  or 
an  Adverb. 

EXAMPLES.  I      i  -^ 

1.  "To  be,  contents  his  natural  fro]    be  ")  '{(contents y    desiri 

desire." 

2.  "We  should  make  efforts  to  im- 

prove. 

3.  William  was  invited  to  attend  C  William 

lectures. 

OBS.  7. — An  Infinitive  Phrase,  used  Substantively,  may  be — 

(a)  The  Subject  of  a  Sentence. 

1.  "  To  be  able  to  read  well,  is  a  valuable  accomplishment." 

(b)  The  Object  of  a  Preposition. 

2.  ' '  We  were  ABOUT  to  retire. ' ' 

3.  "  Be  so  kind  AS  to  place  that  in  diagram." 

(c)  A  Logical  Adjunct. 

4.  "  IT  is  our  duty  to  make  good  use  of  our  time.'* 

HEM. — In  the  opinion  of  most  grammarians,  the  Verbs  love,  desire, 
wish,  expect,  and  some  others,  take  Infinitive  Phrases  after  them  as 
Objects.  [See  pp.  213,  214.] 

OBS.  8. — An  Infinitive  Phrase,  used  Adjectively,  may  be  the  Ad- 
junct of — 

(a)  The  Subject  of  a  Sentence. 

1 .  '  *  A  constant  PURPOSE  to  excel  marked  his  whole  career. ' ' 

(b)  The  Object  of  a  Sentence. 

2.  William  has  made  EFFORTS  to  improve  in  speaking. 

(c)  The  Object  of  a  Phrase 

3.  "He  arrived  in  TIME  to  give  his  vote. 

(d)  A  Substantive  in  Predicate. 

4.  That  is  the  BUSINESS  next  to  be  done. 

23* 


270 


ENGLISH   GRAMMAR PART   III. 


OBS.  9. — An  Infinitive  Phrase,  used  Adverbially,  may  be  the  Ad- 
junct of — 

(a)  A  Verb  in  Predicate. 

1.  Will  you  ALLOW  me  to  place  this  in  diagram  ? 

(b)  An  Adjective  in  Predicate. 

2.  We  are  READY  to  depart. 

(c)  An  Adverb. 

8.  We  were  TOO  late  to  take  the  cars. 

OBS.  10. — The  Infinitive,  like  other  Phrases,  is  sometimes  inde- 
pendent in  construction. 

EXAMPLE. — And,  to  be  plain  with  you,  I  think  you  the  more  unreason- 
able of  the  two. 

OBS.  11. — The  Infinitive  Phrase  often  follows  the  Words  as  and  than. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  "  An  object  so  high  as  TO  BE  INVISIBLE." 

2.  ' '  He  said  nothing  further  than  TO  GIVE  an  apology  for 

his  vote." 

HEM. — In  the  above  and  similar  examples,  as  and  than  are  to  be 
regarded  as  Prepositions,  having  for  their  objects  the  Infinitive  Phrases 
following.     In  like  manner  it  sometimes  follows  other  Prepositions. 
EXAMPLE,- — We  are  about  TO  RECITE.     [See  Obs.  7,  above.] 

PREPOSITIONS. 

RULE  12. — A  Preposition  shows  a  relation  of  its  Object 
to  the  word  which  its  Phrase  qualifies. 
OBS.  1. — The  Object  of  a  Preposition  may  be — 

1.  A  Word. 

"The  time  OF  my  de- 
parture is  AT  hand." 

2.  A  Phrase. 

"  A  habit  OF  moving 
quickly  is  another 
way  OF  gaining  time.1 ' 

3.  A  Sentence. 
« *  And  cries  OF  '  live  for 
ever '     struck     the 
skies." 

OBS.  2.— A  Word,  a  Phrase,  or  a  Sentence,  being  the  Object  of  3 
Preposition,  is,  in  its  office,  Substantive.     [See  "departure,"  "hand," 


PREPOSITIONS.  271 

"moving  quickly,'*    "gaining  time,"  and  "live  for  ever,     in  tha 
Examples  above.] 

OBS.  3. — Words  which  follow  Prepositions  as  their  Objects  of  relation 
are  Nouns  or  Pronouns,  and  commonly  have  the  Objective  form. 

REM. — For  Exceptions,  see  p.  172. 

OBS.  4  —But  Words  commonly  used  as  Adjectives  or  Adverbs,  often 
become  Objects  of  Prepositions,  and  are  then  properly  parsed  as  Sub- 
stantives, in  the  Objective  Case. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.   "  He  has  faded  from  earth  like  a  star  from  ON  high." 

2.  John  is  a  friend  OF  mine. 

3.  "As  yet  the  trembling  year  is  unconfirmed." 

OBS.  5  — Scholars  often  find  it  difficult  to  determine  the  Antecedent 
term  of  a  relation  expressed  by  a  Preposition— examples  sometimes 
occur  in  which  the  relation  of  the  Object  cf  a  Preposition  seems  to 
exist,  not  to  any  word,  but  to  the  whole  Sentence.  Generally,  how- 
ever, tliis  question  can  be  settled  by  ascertaining  which  word  is  qualified 
by  the  Phrase  introduced  by  a  Preposition — that  word  is  the  Antecedent 
term  of  relation. 

EXAMPLE. — "  A  flood  OF  glory  bursts  FROM  all  the  skies." 

REM. — Here  the  Phrase  "  of  glory"  specifies  "flood  ;"  hence,  "flood" 
in  the  Antecedent  term  of  the  relative  expressed  by  "of;"  and  the 
Phrase  is  Adjective. 

"From  all  the  skies"  modifies  "bursts;"  hence,  "bursts"  is  the 
Antecedent  term  ;  and  the  Phrase  is  Adverbial. 

OBS.  6. — Double  Prepositions  are  sometimes  allowed. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.   "  Out  of  every  grove  the  voice  of  pleasure  warbles." 
2.  * '  There  can  be  no  question  as  to  which  party  must 
yield. ' ' 

OBS.  7. — But  two  Prepositions  should  not  be  used,  when  one  of  them 
will  fully  express  the  sense  intended. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.   "  Near  to  this  dome  is  found  a  path  so  green." 
2.   "Not  for  to  hide  it  in  a  hedge." — Bums. 

OBS.  8. — A  Preposition  may  be  omitted  when  the  sense  is  not  thereby- 
obscured . 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  They  carried  the  child  home— to  its  home. 

2.  He  remained  three  weeks — during  three  weeks. 


272  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR PART   III. 

OBS.  9. — POSITION. — The  proper  place  for  a  Preposition  is  (as  its  name 
implies)  before  the  Phrase  which  it  introduces. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  "!N  dread,  IN  danger,  and  alone, 

Famished  and  chilled  THROUGH  ways  unknown." 
OBS.  10. — But',  by  the  poets,  it  is  often  placed  after  its  Object. 

EXAMPLE. — "  From  peak  to  peak,  the  rattling  crags  AMONG, 
Leaps  the  live  thunder." 

OBS.  11. — And  sometimes  in  colloquial  style 

EXAMPLE. — "  You  will  have  no  mother  or  sister  to  go  to." — Abbott. 

HEM.— This  idiom  is  inelegant,  and  not  to  be  recommended.    . 

OBS.  12. — A  Preposition  commonly  indicates  the  office  of  the  Phrase 
•which  it  introduces. 

EXAMPLE. — See  page  1GO. 

OBS.  13.— Many  words  commonly  used  as  Prepositions  are  some- 
times employed,  not  as  Elements  of  Phrases,  but  as  Word  Elements  in 
Sentences.  These  are  commonly  Adverbs. 

EXAMPLES.— 1.   "  Come  on,  my  brave  associates." 

2.  "Lift  up  thy  voice  like  a  trumpet." 

3.  "  Down,  down,  the  tempest  plunges  on  the  sea, 

4.  And  the  mad  waves  rise  up  to  buffet  it." 

XOTE  I. — Care  should  be  exercised  in  the  choice  of 
Prepositions. 

OBS.  1. — The  particular  Preposition  proper  to  introduce  a  given 
Phrase  depends— 

1 .  Usually  on  the  word  which  the  Phrase  is  to  qualify. 

2.  Sometimes  on  the  Object  of  the  Phrase. 

EXAMPLES. 

Accommodate  to.  Die  by  violence.  Compliance  with. 

Accord  with.  "  of  a  disease.  Conformable  to. 

Accuse  of.  Diminish  from  Difficulty  in — with. 

Acquainted  with.  Dissent  from.  Eager  in— for. 

Ask  of  a  person.  Insist  upon.  Need  of. 

1 '  for  a  thing.  Made  of  a  thing.  True  to. 

Bestow  upon.  '*     by  a  person.  Value  upon. 

Boast  of.  "    in  a  place.  Worthy  of. 

Concur  with — in.  Abhorrence  of. 

Differ  from.  Agreeable  to. 


CONJUNCTIONS.  273 

OBS.  2. — When  the  second  term  of  a  Comparison  is  expressed  by  a 
Phrase- 
After  a  Superlative,  the  Preposition  of  is  commonly  used. 
After  a  Comparative,  the  Preposition  than  is  commonly  used. 

EXAMPLES. — Grammar  is  the  most  interesting  o/all  my  studies. 

Grammar  is  more  interesting  than  all  my  other  studies. 

OBS.  3. — When  the  second  term  of  a  Comparison  of  Equality  is  a  Noun 
or  a  Pronoun,  the  Preposition  as  is  commonly  used— sometimes  like  is 
used. 

EXAMPLES. — 1 .   "He  hath  died  to  redeem  such  a  rebel  AS  me. "—  Wesley. 
2.   "An  hour  LIKE  this  may  well  display  the  emptiness 
of  human  grandeur. ' ' 

OBS.  4. — Some  writers  improperly  substitute  the  words  for  and  with 
for  as. 

EXAMPLE. — "  It  implies  government  of  the  very  same  kind  WITH  THAT 
which  a  master  exercises  over  his  servants."—!?;?.  Butler. 

OBS.  5. — A  Preposition  and  its  Subsequent  constitute  a  Phrase, 
generally  constituting  an  Adjective  or  an  Adverbial  Adjunct. 

EXAMPLES. 

Adjective  Element. — 1.   "  The  KING  of  Shadows  loves  a  shining  mark." 
Adverbial  Element. — 2.   "Time  SLEPT  on  flowers,  and  LENT  his  glass  to 
Hope." 

HEM.  1. — The  Prepositional  Phrase  is  also  used  as  a  Substantive 
Element  in  a  Sentence.  [See  CLARK'S  ANALYSIS,  p.  115.] 

P.EM.  2.— In  the  analysis  of  a  Sentence,  a  Phrase  contained  in  it  is 
to  be  parsed,  first,  as  one  distinct  Element  in  the  structure  of  its  Sen- 
tence ;  then  the  Phrase  is  to  be  analyzed,  and  each  of  its  distinct  Ele- 
ments pointed  out.  [See  pp.  184-5.] 


CONJUNCTIONS. 

RULE  13. — Conjunctions  connect  Words,  Phrases,  and 
Sentences,  or  introduce  Sentences. 

EXAMPLES. 

Words 1.  "In  the  beginning,  God  created  the  HEAVEN  and  the 

EARTH  " 


274  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR PART   HI. 

Phrases. .  .2.   "To  GIVE  GOOD  GIFTS  and  TO  BE  BENEVOLENT,  are  often 

different  things.  ' 
Sentences  . .  3.   "  Thou  art  perched  aloft  on  the  beetling  crag, 

And  the  waves  are  white  below. ' ' 

OBS.  1. —  Words  connected  by  Conjunctions  have  a  similar  construction. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.   "God  created  the  heaven  AND  the  earth." 

2.  "Time  slept  on  flowers,  AND  lent  his  glass  to  Hope." 

3.  "A  great  AND  good  man  has  fallen." 

REM. — "Heaven"  and  "earth"  are  alike  Objects  of  "created." 
' '  Slept' '  and  "1  ent' '  are  Predicates  of  ' '  Time. "  "  Great' '  and  ' '  good' ' 
describe  "  man." 

OBS.  2. — But  they  have  not  necessarily  similar  modifications. 

EXAMPLE. — "Every  teacher  has  AND  must  have  his  own  particular  way 
of  imparting  knowledge." — McElligoit. 

HEM. — "Has"  and  "must  have"  are  Predicates  of  "teacher" — but 
they  are  not  of  the  same  Mode. 

OBS.  3. — Phrases  and  Sentences  used  as  Elements  in  the  structure  of 
a  Principal  Sentence,  have  a  similar  construction  when  connected  by 
Conjunctions. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.   "He  served  his  country  in  the  cabinet  AND  in  the  field.'1 

2.  "To  eat  AND  to  sleep,  constitute  the  sum  of  his  em- 

ployments." 

3.  "  While  lam  his  AND  he  is  mine, 

I'm  ever  safe  from  ill." 

OES.  4. — But  Conjunctions  may  introduce  Principal  Sentences,  with- 
out connecting  them  to  any  Word  or  Sentence  in  construction. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.   "  And  who  says  this  ?" 

2.  "  That  I  have  taken  this  old  man's  daughter  is  most 

true." 

3.  "  And  I  am  glad  that  he  has  lived  thus  long. 

OBS.  5. — Conjunctions  introducing  Adjunct  Sentences  connect  their 
Sentences  to  the  Word  modified  by  such  Auxiliaries. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  "And,  IF  I  sought, 

Think' st  thou  no  other  could  be  brought  ?" 

2.  "  As  ye  journey,  sweetly  sing." 

3.  ' '  How  dear  to  my  heart  are  the  scenes  of  my  childhood, 

WHEN  fond  recollection  presents  them  to  view." 
[See  Diagram,  p.  261.] 


CONJUNCTIONS.  275 

OBS.  6. — But  Auxiliary  Substantive  Sentences  are  simply  introduced 
by  Conjunctions. 

EXAMPLE. — 1.  "THAT  all  men  are  created  equal,  is  a  self-evident 

truth." 
2.  "He  knew  not  THAT  the  chieftain  lay 

Unconscious  of  his  son. ' ' 
[See  Diagram,  p.  214.] 

OBS.  7. — The  Position  of  Sentences  often  determines  their  connection, 
without  the  use  of  Conjunctions. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  "  The  time  may  come  you  need  not  run." — Thomson. 

2.  "  Milton !  thou  shouldst  be  living  at  this  hour — 

[For]  England  hath  need  of  thee." 

3.  "  But  Brutus  says,  he  was  ambitious." 

OBS  8. — Auxiliary  Adjective  Sentences  are  commonly  introduced  by 
Relative  Pronouns  and  by  Possessive  Adjectives  derived  from  them. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.   "  He  WHO  filches  from  me  my  good  name, 

Robs  me  of  that  WHICH  not  enriches  him. ' ' 

2.  "  Lo  the  poor  Indian,  WHOSE  untutored  mind 

•Sees  God  in  clouds  or  hears  him  in  the  wind" 

3.  "Thou  hadst  a  voice  WHOSE  sound  was  like  the  sea" 

OBS.  9. — Conjunctions  that  introduce  Auxiliary  Adverbial  Sentences, 
and  some  others,  indicate  the  offices  of  the  Sentences  which  they 
introduce.  . 

If,  Unless,  etc.,  indicate  condition.  As,  When,  Before,  etc.,  indicate 
time.  For,  Hence,  Therefore,  etc.,  indicate  an  inference  or  cause.  But,  Yet, 
Nevertheless,  etc.,  indicate  restriction  or  apposition.  Nor,  Neither,  etc., 
indicate  a  negation. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.   "  Tf  sinners  entice  thee,  consent  thou  not." 

2.  "  Speak  of  me  as  lam — nothing  extenuate, 

Nor  set  down  aught  in  malice. ' ' 

3.  "Then,  when  I  AM  THY  CAPTIVE,  talk  of  chains." 

4.  "  I  go,  but  I  return." 

Exception.— The  Conjunction  when  may  introduce  an  Adjective  Sen- 
tence that  limits  a  Noun  indicating  time. 

EXAMPLE. — Do  you  remember  the  TIME  when  Lee  surrendered  to  Grant  I 

Exception. — The  Conjunction  where  may  introduce  an  Adjective  Sen- 
tence that  limits  a  Noun  indicating  place. 

EXAMPLE.— la  there  some  faivored  SPOT  where  mortals  weep  no  more  f 


276  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR — PART   III. 

Caution.— The  words  where  and  when  are  often  improperly  used  for  the 
Phrase  in  which. 

Incorrect. — "A  limited  monarchy  is  a  government  where  the  powers 
and  duties  of  the  monarch  are  limited  by  a  constitution." 

Corrected. — A  limited  monarchy  is  one  in  which  the  powers  and  duties 
of  the  monarch  are  limited  by  a  constitution. 

OBS.  10. — Conjunctions  may  be  omitted  only  when  the  connection 
is  sufficiently  clear  without  them. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.   "  Unnumbered  systems,  [    ]  suns,  and  worlds, 

Unite  to  worship  thee  ; 
2.  While  thy  majestic  greatness  fills 

Space,  [    ]  Time,  [    ]  Eternity.'7 

OBS.  11. — The  Adverb  "  how"  is  sometimes  improperly  used  instead 
of  the  Conjunction  "that." 

EXAMPLE. — "  She  tells  me  how,  with  eager  speed, 

He  flew  to  hear  my  vocal  reed." — Shenstone. 

OBS.  12. — Conjunctions  sometimes  introduce  the  remnant  of  a 
Sentence. 

EXAMPLE.— Though  [    ]  afflicted,  he  is  happy. 

OBS.  1*3. — POSITION. — The  proper  place  for  a  Conjunction  is  before 
the  Sentence  which  it  introduces,  and  between  the  Words  or  Phrases 
which  it  connects. 

EXAMPLE. — "  And  there  lay  the  rider,  distorted  AND  pale, 

With  the  dew  on  his  brow  AND  the  rust  on  his  mail." 

OBS.  14. — But  in  Complex  Sentences,  the  Conjunction  introducing 
the  Principal  Sentence  is  commonly  placed  first,  and  that  introducing 
the  Auxiliary  Sentence  immediately  following. 

EXAMPLE. — "And  when  its  yellow  luster  smiled, 

O'er  mountains  yet  untrod, 

Each  MOTHER  HELD  aloft  her  CHILD 

To  bless  the  bow  of  God." 

But  to  this  rule  there  are  exceptions. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  "They  kneeled  BEFORE  they  fought" 

2.   "How  vain  are  all  these  glories,  all  our  pains, 

UNLESS  good  sense  preserve  what  beauty  gains." — Pope. 


CONJUNCTIONS.  277 

CORRESPONDING  CONJUNCTIONS. 

OBS.  15.— Many  Conjunctions  correspond  to  Adverbs,  to  Prepositions, 
and  to  other  Conjunctions. 

As so "Asia  the  mother,  so  is  the  daughter." 

So as "Mary  is  not  so  cheerful  as  usual." 

Both and "  Both  good  and  bad  were  gathered  in  one  group." 

Either  . .  .or "Either  you  mistake,  or  I  was  misinformed." 

Not nor "  Prepositions  should  not  be  inserted  nor  omitted 

contrary  to  general  usage." 

Neither. ..nor "Neither  Alice  nor  Caroline  has  been  here  to-day." 

"Whether .or "I  care  not  whether  you  go  or  stay." 

So that "He  called  so  loud  that  all  the  hollow  deep." 

Such that "  My  engagements  are  such  that  I  can  not  go." 

If. then '  *  If  you  will  take  the  right,  then  I  will  go  to  the  left.' ' 

Not  only .  but  also. .  "She  was  not  only  vain,  but  also  extremely  ignorant." 
Though.  ,yet. ...;."  Though  ma*i  live  a  hundred  years,  yet  is  his  life  as 

vanity." 
Because,  .therefore."  Therefore  doth  my  Father  love  me,  because  I  lay 

down  my  life." 

REM. — The  Antecedent  corresponding  word  is  sometimes  expletive. 
OBS.  16. — Double  Conjunctions  are  sometimes  used. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.   "  As  though  he  had  not  been  anointed  with  oil." 
2.   "  And  yet,  fair  bow,  no  fabling  dreams, 

But  words  of  the  Most  High 
Have  told  why  first  thy  robe  of  beams 
Was  woven  in  the  sky. ' ' 

OBS.  17. — But  they  may  not  be  used  when  one  of  them  would  fully 
express  the  connection. 

EXAMPLE. — "There  would  be  no  doubt  but  that  they  would  remain." 
The  word  "  but"  is  unnecessary  and  improper. 
j^**  Let  the  Pupils  correct  the  following 

ERRORS. 

1.  William  is  not  as  cheerful  as  usual. 

2.  Either  you  mistake,  else  I  was  misinformed. 

3.  Neither  wealth  or  fame  render  a  man  happy. 

4.  Prepositions  should  not  be  inserted  or  omitted  contrary  to  general 

usage  — Kent,  p.  435. 

5.  I  can  not  doubt  but  that  Robert  will  return. 

24 


278  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR PART   in. 

EXCLAMATIONS. 

RULE  14. — Exclamations  have  no  dependent  con- 
struction, 

OBS.— Exclamations  may  be  followed  by  Words,  Phrases,  or  Sen- 
tences. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  "  0  Scotia  !  my  dear,  my  native  soil." 

2.  "Wo  !  wo !  to  the  riders  that  trample  thee  down." 

3.  "0  that  I  could  again  recall 

My  early  joys,  companions  all !" 

WORDS    OF   EUPHONY. 

NOTE. — Words  of  Euphony  are,  in  their  offices,  chiefly 
rhetorical. 

REM.— The  Principles  of  Euphony  are  much  required  in  the  structure 
of  all  languages ;  for  Euphony,  words  are  altered  in  form,  position, 
and  office — and  they  are,  for  Euphony,  created  or  omitted. 

OBS. — Euphony  allows — 

1.  The  Transposition  of  Words  in  a  Sentence. 

EXAMPLE. — "  From  peak  to  peak,  the  rattling  crags  AMONG, 
Leaps  the  live  thunder. ' ' 

2.  The  oriission  of  a  letter  or  syllable. 

EXAMPLE.  —  "  Hark  !  'tis  the  breeze  of  twilight  calling." 

3.  The  substitution  of  one  letter  for  another. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  Collect,        for  Conlect. 

2.  Syllogism,     "   Sunloglsm. 

3.  Immigrant,    "  /^migrant. 

4.  The  addition  of  a  letter,  syllable,  or  word. 
EXAMPLE. — "  It  was  his  bounds  duty  thus  to  act." 

5.  A  word  to  be  separated  into  parts,  and  another  word  inserted 
between  them. 

EXAMPLE. — "  How  MUCH  soever  we  may  feel  their  force." 

6.  A  word  to  be  used  not  in  its  ordinary  office. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.   "  And  there  lay  the  steed  with  his  nostril  ALL  wide." 
2>   '  *  The  more  I  see  of  this  method,  THE  better  I  like  it." 


GENERAL    RULES.  281 

POSITION. 

NOTE. — Words  of  Euphony  should  be  placed  ^f  t^e 
appropriate  connection. 

OBS.  1. — In  the  following  examples  this  principle  is  violated  : 

1.  "To  think  of  others,  and  not  only  of  himself." 

Here  ',lonly"  is  used  to  render   "himself"  emphatic.     A  better 
position  would  be—"  and  not  of  himself  only.1' 

2.  "Joyous  Youth  and  manly  Strength  and  stooping  Age  are 

even  here." 

Better. — Joyous  Youth  and  manly  Strength  and  even  STOOPING  AGE 
are  here. 

3.  "  When  our  hatred  is  violent,  it  sinks  us  even  beneath  those  we 

hate." 
•»    Better. — It  sinks  us  beneath  even  THOSE  WE  HATE. 

OBS.  2. — A  Word  repeated  in  the  same  connection  is  to  be  regarded 
as  a  word  of  Euphony. 

EXAMPLES. — "Down  !  down !  the  tempest  plunges  on  the  sea." 
"  For  life  !  for  life,  their  flight  they  ply." 

GENERAL    RULES. 

1.  In  constructing  a  Sentence,  such  Words  should  be 
chosen  as  will  most  clearly  convey  the  sense  intended — 
regard  being  had  also  to  variety  and  other  principles  of 
taste. 

2.  In  expressing   Complex  ideas,  judgment  and   taste 
are  to  be  exercised  in  the  use  of  Phrases  and  Sentences, 
when  they  may  equally  convey  the  sense. 

3.  That   Modification    of   Words    should    be    adopted 
which  is  in  accordance  with  the  most  reputable  usage. 

4.  The  relative  Position  of  Words,  Phrases,  and  Sen- 
tences should  be  such  as  to  leave  no  obscurity  in  the  sense. 

5.  Involved  Complex  Sentences  should  not  be  used  when 
Simple  or  Independent  Sentences  would  better  convey  the 
sense. 


280  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR PART   in. 

RECAPITULATION   OF   THE    RULES    OF   SYNTAX. 
RULE  1. — THE  SUBJECT  OF  A  SENTENCE— NOUN  OR  PRONOUN. 

The  Subject  of  a  Sentence  must  be  in  the  Nominative 
Case. 

RULE  2. — PREDICATE  OF  A  SENTENCE — VERB. 

A  Verb  must  agree  with  its  Subject  in  Person   and 
1ST  umber. 

RULE  3. — THE  OBJECT  OF  A  SENTENCE  OR  PHRASE — NOUN  OR  PRONOUN. 
The  Object  of  an  action  or  relation  must  be  in  the  Ob- 
jective Case. 

RULE  4. — PRONOUNS. 

A  Pronoun  must  agree  with  its  Antecedent  in  Gender, 
Person,  and  Number. 

RULE  5. — ADJECTIVE  PRONOUNS. 

Adjective  Pronouns  are  substituted  for  the  Nouns  which 
they  qualify. 

RULE  6. — INDEPENDENT  CASE — NOUN  OR  PRONOUN. 
A  Noun  or  a  Pronoun  not  dependent  on  any  other  word 
in  construction,  is  in  the  Independent  Case. 

RULE  7. — ADJECTIVES. 

Adjectives  belong  to  Nouns  and  Pronouns  which  they 
describe. 

RULE  8. — POSSESSIVE  SPECIFYING  ADJECTIVES. 
A  Noun  or  a  Pronoun  in  the  Possessive  Case  is  used 
Adjectively. 

RULE  9. — ADVERBS. 

Adverbs  belong  to  Verbs,  Adjectives,  and  other  Adverbs 
which  they  modify. 

RULE  10. — PARTICIPLES. 

A  Participle  has  the  same  construction  as  the  "  part  of 
speech" 'for  which  it  is  used. 


EXAMPLES   FOR    PARSING.  281 

RULE  11. — VERBS —INFINITIVE. 

A  Verb  in  the  Infinitive  Mode  is  the  Object  of  the 
Preposition  TO,  expressed  or  understood. 

RULE  12. — PREPOSITIONS. 

A  Preposition  shows  a  relation  of  its  Object  to  the 
word  which  its  Phrase  qualifies. 

RULE  13. — CONJUNCTIONS. 

Conjunctions  connect  Words,  Phrases,  and  Sentences, 
or  introduce  Sentences. 

RULE  14. — EXCLAMATIONS. 
Exclamations  have  no  dependent  construction. 


ADDITIONAL   EXAMPLES   FOR    PARSING. 

[See  Models  on  p.  261.] 

1.  "He  was  stirred 

"With  such  an  agony  he  sweat  extremely." — Henry  VIII. ,  ii.  2. 

2.  "But  it  is  fit  things  be  stated  as  they  are  considered -as  they 

really  are." — Bp.  Butler. 

3.  "  He  whose  soul 
Ponders  this  true  equality,  may  walk 

The  fields  of  earth  with  gratitude  and  hope."  —  Wordsworth. 

4.  "  Before  we  passionately  desire  anything  which  another  enjoys, 

we  should  examine  into  the  happiness  of  its  possessor." 

5.  "  They  say,  *  this  shall  be,'  and  it  is, 
For  ere  they  act,  they  think." — Burns. 

6.  "  My  heart  is  awed  within  me,  when  I  think  of  the  great  miracle 

that  still  goes  on  in  silence  round  me." 

7.  * '  Take  good  heed, 

Nor  there  be  modest  where  thou  shouldst  be  proud." — Young. 

8.  "  Ambition  saw  that  stooping  Rome  could  bear 
A  master,  nor  had  virtue  to  be  free." — Thomson. 

24* 


PART  IV. 

PKOSODY. 


DEF.  1. — That  part  of  the  Science  of  Language  which 
treats  of  utterance,  is  called  Prosody. 

OBS. — Utterance  is  modified  by  Pauses,  by  Accent,  and  by  the  laws  of 

Versification. 

PAUSES. 

DEF.  2. — Pauses  are  cessations  of  the  voice  in  reading 
or  speaking. 

( Rhetorical  and 
OBS.  l.-Pauses  are  j  Grammatical. 

OBS  2. — Rhetorical  Pauses  are  useful  chiefly  in  arresting  attention. 
They  are  generally  made  after  or  immediately  before  emphatic  words. 
They  are  not  indicated  by  marks. 

EXAMPLES. — There  is  a  calm       for  those  who  weep, 
A  rest       for  weary  pilgrims  found. 

OBS.  3. — Grammatical  Pauses  are  useful — in  addition  to  their  Rhe- 
torical effect — in  determining  the  sense. 
They  are  indicated  by 

MARKS  OF  PUNCTUATION. 

They  are — 


The  Comma 

The  Semicolon. 
The  Colon. . , 


The  Period 

The  Interrogation ....  ? 
The  Exclamation. . .   .  ! 


The  Dash  — 
OBS.  4. — In  its  Rhetorical  office, 

The  Comma  requires  a  short  pause  in  reading. 
The  Semicolon,  a  pause  longer  than  the  Comma. 
The  Colon,  a  pause  longer  than  the  Semicolon. 
The  Period  requires  a  full  pause. 

The  Dash,  the  Marks  of  Exclamation  and  Interrogation,  require 
pauses  corresponding  with  either  of  the  other  marks. 


PAUSES COMMA.  283 

HEM. — In  the  use  of  Marks  of  Punctuation,  good  writers  differ  ;  and 
it  is  exceedingly  difficult  for  the  Teacher  to  give  Rules  for  theii  use 
that  can  be  of  general  application. 

The  following  Rules  are  the  most  important : 


COMMA. 

RULE  1.  —  When  more  than  two  -words  of  the  same 
construction  occur  consecutively,  the  Comma  should  be 
repeated  aftei  each. 

EXAMPLES. 

Correct.  —  1.   "  Veracity,  justice,  and  charity  are  essential  virtues." 
2.  "There  is  such  an  exactness  in  definition,  such  a  perti- 
nence in  proof,  such  a  perspicuity  in  his  detection 
of  sophisms,  as  have  been  rarely  employed  in  the 
Christian  cause."  —  B.  B.  Edwards. 
Incorrect.  —  3.   "The  dripping  rock  the  mountain's  misty  top 

Swell  on  the  sight  and  brighten  with  the  dawn." 
4.  Fame  wisdom  love  and  power  were  mine. 


n.—  The  Comma  is  not  placed  between  an  Adjective 
and  its  Noun,  although  preceded  by  other  Adjectives  of  the  same  con- 
struction. 

EXAMPLES. 

Correct.  —  1.   "David  was  a  brave,  martial,  enterprising  prince." 

2.   "With  that  dull-rooted,  callous  impudence." 
Incorrect.  —  3.   "The  tall,  dark,  mountains  and  the  deep-toned  sea." 
Ah  !  how  unjust  to  Nature  and  himself, 
Is  thoughtless,  thankless,  inconsistent,  man  ! 

RULE  2.  —  The  parts  of  a  Complex  Sentence  should  be 
separated  by  a  Comma,  when  the  Auxiliary  precedes  the 
Principal  Sentence. 


Correct. — 1.   "  Where  wealth  and  freedom  reign,  contentment  fails." 

2.   "  If  thine  enemy  hunger,  feed  him ;  if  he  thirst,  give  him 

drink." 

Incorrect. — 3.   "  "When  the  cock  crew  he  wept." 
4.   "As  ye  journey  sweetly  sing." 


284:  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR PART   IT. 

RULE  3. — An  Adjunct  Phrase  or  Sentence,  used  to 
express  an  incidental  fact,  and  placed  between  the  parts 
of  the  Principal  Sentence,  is  separated  by  Commas. 

EXAMPLES. 

Correct. — 1.   "  The  grave,  that  never  spoke  before, 

Hath  found,  at  length,  a  tongue  to  chide." 
Incorrect. — 2.   "Truth  crushed  to  earth  will  rise  again." 

8.   "Rise  sons  of  harmony  and  hail  the  morn." 
Exception. — But  when  an  Adjunct  Phrase  or  Sentence  which  is  indis- 
pensable in  perfecting  the  sense,  immediately  follows  the  word  which 
it  qualifies,  the  Comma  should  not  intervene. 

EXAMPLES. 

Correct. — 1.   "  Every  one  that  findeth  me,  shall  slay  me." 

2.   "  Let  school-taught  pride  dissemble  all  it  can." 
Incorrect. — 3.   "The  fur,  that  warms  a  monarch,  warmed  a  bear." 

RULE  4. — Words,  Phrases,  and  Sentences  thrown  in 
between  the  parts  of  a  Principal  Sentence  are  separated 
by  Commas. 

EXAMPLES. 

Correct. — 1.   "  Go,  then,  where,  wrapt  in  fear  and  gloom, 

Fond  hearts  and  true  are  sighing." 
2.   "Now,  therefore,  I  pray  thee,  let  thy  servant  abide." 
Incorrect. — 3.   "  It  is  a  clear  late  the  very  picture  ordinarily  of  repose." 

RULE  5. — A  Phrase  or  a  Sentence  used  as  the  Subject 
of  a  Verb  requires  a  Comma  between  it  and  the  Verb. 

EXAMPLES. 

Correct. — 1.   To  do  good  to  others,  constitutes  an  important  object  of 

existence. 

2.  That  we  are  rivals,  does  not  necessarily  make  us  enemies. 
Incorrect. — 3.  *  *  That  all  men  are  created  equal  is  a  self-evident  truth. ' ' 
"His  being  a  minister  prevented  his  rising  to  civil 
power." 

RULE  6. — Words  used  in  direct  address  should  be 
separated  by  a  Comma. 

EXAMPLES. 

Correct. — 1.   "Thou,  whose  spell  can  raise  the  dead, 
Bid  the  prophet's  form  appear." 


PAUSES SEMICOLON.  285 

Incorrect. — 2.   ' '  Samuel  raise  thy  buried  head 

King  behold  the  phantom  seer!" 

RULE  7. — Adjunct  Sentences,  Phrases,  and  sometimes 
Words,  not  in  their  natural  position,  should  be  separated 
by  a  Comma. 

EXAMPLES. 

Correct. — 1.  "  Into  this  illustrious  society,  he  whose  character  I  have 
endeavored  feebly  to  portray,  has,  without  doubt, 
entered." 

2.  "  He,  like  the  world,  his  ready  visit  pays, 

Where  Fortune  smiles." 

Incorrect. — 3.   "  To  him  who  in  the  love  of  Nature  holds 
Communion  with  her  visible  forms 
She  speaks  a  various  language." 

OBS.  — An  Independent  Phrase  should  be  separated  from  its  Sentence 
by  a  Comma. 

Correct. — "  Thus  talking,  hand  in  hand  alone  they  passed." 
Incorrect. — "Captain  Smith,  having  gone  to  sea  his  wife,  desires  the 
prayers  of  the  congregation  far  his  safe  return. ' ' 

SEMICOLON. 

RULE  8. — The  Semicolon  is  used  at  the  close  of  a  Sen- 
tence which,  by  its  terms,  promises  an  additional  Sentence. 

EXAMPLE?. 

Correct. — 1.   "The  Essayists  occupy  a  conspicuous  place  in  the  last 
century ;  but,  somehow,  I  do  not  feel  disposed  to 
set  much  store  by  them." 
Incorrect. — 2.   "It  thunders  but  I  tremble  not 
My  trust  is  firm  in  God." 

3.  "  Wisdom  is  better  than  rubies, 

It  can  not  be  gotten  for  gold." 

Ocs. — By  many  writers,  the  Semicolon  is  used  to  separate  short 
Sentences  which  have  not  a  close  dependence  to  each  other. 

EXAMPLES. 

Correct.— 1.  "He  was  a  plain  man,  without  any  pretension  to  pulpit 
eloquence,  or  any  other  accomplishment ;  he  had  no 
gift  of  imagination  ;  his  language  was  hard  and  dry ; 
and  hii  illustrations,  homely. ' ' 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR — PART   IV. 

Incorrect. — 2.    "  I  had  a  seeming  friend — I  gave  him  gifts  and  he  was 

gone 

I  had  an  open  enemy  I  gave  him  gifts,  and  won  him — 
The  very  heart  of  hate  incite th  at  a  good  man's  love." 

COLON. 

RULE  9. — The  Colon  is  used  at  the  close  of  a  Sentence, 
when  another  Sentence  is  added  as  a  direct  illustration 
or  inference. 

EXAMPLES. 

Correct. — 1.  "Let  me  give  you  a  piece  of  good  counsel,  my  cousin  : 
follow  my  laudable  example  :  write  when  you  can  : 
take  Time's  forelock  in  one  hand  and  a  pen  in  the 
other,  and  so  make  sure  of  your  opportunity." 

Incorrect. — 2.  "From  the  last  hill  that  looks  on  thy  once  holy  dome, 
I  beheld  thee,  0  Sion  !  when  rendered  to  Rome 
'Twas  thy  last  sun  went  down,  and  the  flames  of  thy 

fall 

Flashed  back  on  the  last  glance  I  gave  to  thy  wall." 
3.  "The  wicked  flee,   when   no  man   pursueth  but  the 
righteous,  are  bold  as  a  lion." 

REM. — The  Colon  is  not  much  used  by  late  writers — its  place  being 
supplied  by  the  Semicolon,  the  Dash,  or  the  Period. 

PERIOD. 

RULE  10. — The  Period  is  used  at  the  close  of  a  com- 
plete or  independent  proposition. 

OBS. — The  Period  is  also  used  after  initial  letters  and  abbreviations. 

EXAMPLES. 

Correct— J.  Q.  Adams,  LL.D.,  M.  C. 
Incorrect. — A  S  Barnes  and  Co  51  John  St  N  Y. 

HASH. 

RULE  11. — The  Dash  is  used  to  indicate — 

1.  An  abrupt  transition. 

2.  An  unfinished  sentence. 

3.  A  succession  of  particulars. 


PAUSES — INTERROGATION.  287 


Correct. — 1.  "They  met  to  expatiate  and  confer  on  state  affairs — to 
read  the  newspapers  -  to  talk  a  little  scandal — and  so 
forth — and  the  result  was — as  we  have  been  told — 
considerable  dissipation." — Wilson's  Burns. 

Incorrect. — 2.  "To  me  the  ' Night  Thoughts'  is  a  poem  on  the  whole 
most  animating  and  delightful  amazingly  energetic 
full  of  the  richest  instruction  improving  to  the 
mind  much  of  it  worthy  of  being  committed  to 
memory  some  faults  obscure  extravagant  tinged 
occasionally  with  flattery. ' ' 

OBS.  1 . — The  Dash  is  often  used  instead  of  the  Parenthesis. 

EXAMPLE. — "As  they  disperse  they  look  very  sad — and,  no  doubt 
they  are  so — but  had  they  been,  they  would  not 
have  taken  to  digging." 

OBS.  2. — Many  modern  writers  use  the  Dash  in  place  of  the  Semi- 
colon and  the  Colon — and  sometimes  with  them. 

EXAMPLE. — "  Ye  have  no  need  of  prayer  ; — 

Ye  have  no  sins  to  be  forgiven." — Sprague. 

EXCLAMATION. 

RULE  12. — The  mark  of  Exclamation  is  used  after  a 
"Word,  Phrase,  or  Sentence  whose  prominent  office  is  to 
express  sudden  or  intense  emotion. 


Correct. — 1.  "  Hark !  a  strange  sound  affrights  mine  ear." 

2.   "To  arms  !— they  come  !— the  Greek,  the  Greek !' 
Incorrect. — 3.   "  0  my  coevals,  remnants  of  yourselves." 

4.   "  Poor  human  ruins  tottering  o'er  the  grave." 

INTERROGATION. 

RULE  13. — The  mark  of  Interrogation  is  used  after  a 
Word,  Phrase,  or  Sentence  by  which  a  question  is  asked. 


Correct. — 1.   "  Why  is  my  sleep  disquieted?' 
2.  Who  is  he  that  calls  the  dead  ? 


288  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR — PART   IV. 

Incorrect. — 3.   "Is  it  for  thee  the  lark  ascends  and  sings." 

4.   "  What  pleasing  study,  cheats  the  tedious  day." 

HEM. — When  the  Interrogation  or  Exclamation  is  used,  the  Comma, 
Semicolon,  Colon,  or  Period  is  omitted. 


GRAMMATICAL    AND    RHETORICAL    SIGNS. 

OBS. — The  signs  used  in  writing  are — 


1.  The  Apostrophe 

2.  The  Quotation "  " 

3.  The  Hyphen - 

4.  The  Bracket [    ] 

5.  The  Parenthesis (    ) 

6.  References *    f 

7.  The  Brace j- 


(Rising 


8.  Inflections  \  Falling 


( Circumflex. . 
j  Long 


9.  Measures  j  ghoft _ 

10.  Caret A 

1 1.  Dieresis. , •• 

12.  Index 

13    Section § 

14.  The  Paragraph fl 


DEF.  3. — The  Apostrophe  (')  is  used  to  indicate  the 
omission  of  a  letter,  and  to  change  a  Noun  into  a  Possessive 
Specifying  Adjective. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  "  Hearts,  from  which  'twas  death  to  sever  ; 

2.  Eyes,  this  world  can  rieer  restore." 

3.  "  How  lightly  mounts  the  Muse's  wing." 

DEF.  4. —  The  Quotation  ("  ")  is  used  to  inclose  words 
taken  from  some  other  author  or  book. 

EXAMPLE.— "South ey,  among  all  our  living  poets,"  says  Professor 
Wilson,  "  stands  aloof  and  '  alone  in  his  glory.'  " 

BEM. — A  Quotation  quoted  is  indicated  by  single  marks. 
EXAMPLE. — [See  the  latter  part  of  the  last  Example.] 

DEF.  5. — The  Hyphen  (-)  is  used  between  two  elements 
of  a  compound  word. 

EXAMPLES.— Money-market— ink-stand — black-board. 

REM. — It  is  also  used  at  the  end  of  a  line,  when  the  word  is  not  fin- 
ished. [See  this  remark.] 


SIGNS — DEFINITIONS.  289 

DBF.  6. — The  Bracket  [  ]  is  used  to  inclose  a  letter  or 
mark  given  as  an  explanatory  example,  or  a  Word, 
Phrase,  or  Sentence  thrown  in  by  a  reviewer,  and  not  a 
part  of  the  original  sentence. 

EXAMPLE. — "Mr.  Secor  found  means  to  have  Mr.  Butler  recom- 
mended to  him  [Lord  Talbot]  for  his  chaplain." 

DEF.  7. — The  Parenthesis  (  )  is  used  to  inclose  a  Phrase 
or  Sentence  explanatory  of,  or  incidental  to,  the  main 
Sentence. 

EXAMPLE. — "  Come,  my  Ambition !  let  us  mount  together, 
(To  mount  Lorenzo  never  can  refuse,) 
And,  from  the  clouds  where  pride  delights  to  dwell, 
Look  down  on  earth." 

KEM.  — Modern  writers  often  use  the  Dash  for  the  same  purpose. 

EXAMPLE. — "The  monotony  of  a  calm — for  the  trade- wind  had 
already  failed  us — was  agreeably  relieved  yesterday  by  the  neighbor- 
kood  of  two  ships,  etc." — Malcolm. 

DEF.  8. — References  (*  f  J  §)  direct  attention  to  notes 
at  the  margin  or  the  bottom  of  the  page. 

KEM. — The  letters  of  the  Latin  or  Greek  alphabets,  and  sometimes 
figures,  are  used  for  the  same  purpose. 

DEF.  9. — The  Braee  (})  is  used  to  include  many  species 
in  one  class. 

( Qualifying, 

T 


EXAMPLE. — Adjectives  are  distinguished  as  •<  Specifying, 

I  Verbal. 


KEM. — By  the  old  poets,  the  Brace  was  also  used  to  join  the  lines  of 
a  triplet. 

DEF.  10. — Inflections  (/N  v)  indicate  elevations  or  de- 
pressions of  the  key-note  in  reading. 

EXAMPLES. — ' '  Do  you  go  to  Albany'  ?"     "  I  go  to  Utica\ ' ' 
25 


ENGLISH   GRAMMAR — PART   IV. 

'(-)  indicates  the  long  sound  of  a 

Syllable,  as  hate,  mete,  note. 
DEF.  11. — Measures.  •{         , 

(    )  indicates  the  short  sound  of  a 

Syllable,  as  hat,  met,  n5t. 

DEF.  12. — The  Caret  (A)  is  used  between  two  Words, 
to  indicate  the  place  of  words  omitted  and  placed  above 
the  line. 

of  mankind 
EXAMPLE. — "The  proper  study  A  is  man." 

DEF.  13. — Dieresis  (  ••)  is  placed  over  the  second  of  two 
vowels,  to  show  that  they  belong  to  different  syllables. 

EXAMPLES.  — Preemption. — Coeval. — Reeducate . 

OBS. — The  Hyphen  is  sometimes  placed  between  the  vowels  for  a 
similar  purpose. 

EXAMPLE. — Co-operate. 

DEF.  14. — The  Index  (ESIP*)  is  used  to  point  out  a  word 
or  sentence  considered  worthy  of  special  notice. 

DEF.  15. — The  Section  (§)  marks  the  divisions  of  a 
chapter  or  book. 

DEF.  16. — The  Paragraph  (T)  is  used  when  a  new  sub- 
ject of  remark  is  introduced. 

REM. — The  sign  of  the  Paragraph  is  retained  in  the  Holy  Scriptures ; 
but  in  other  compositions  the  Paragraph  is  sufficiently  indicated  by  its 
commencing  a  new  line  on  the  page. 

DEF.  17. — Accent  is  a  stress  of  voice  placed  on  a  par- 
ticular syllable  in  pronouncing  a  word. 

DEF.  18. — Emphasis  is  a  stress  of  voice  placed  on  a  par- 
ticular word  in  a  Sentence. 

OBS. — This  mark  is  indicated— 

1.  In  manuscript,  by  a  line  drawn  under  the  emphatic  word. 

2.  On  a  printed  page,  by  the  use  of  Italic  letters — CAPITAL 

letters  are  used  to  indicate  words  still  more  emphatic. 


COMPOSITION POETBY.  291 

COMPOSITION. 

DEF.  19. — Composition — as  the  word  implies — is  the  art 
of  placing  together  words  so  as  to  communicate  ideas. 

PROSE  AND  VERSE. 

In  Prose  Composition,  Words  and  Phrases  are  arranged 
with  a  primary  reference  to  the  sense. 

In  Verse,  the  Sound  and  Measure  of  Words  and  Syllables 
determine  their  position. 

OBS. — Among  the  various  kinds  of  Prose  Compositions  may  be 
mentioned  the  following : 

Narrative,     Descriptive,     Didactic,     Historical,     Biographical. 

VERSE. 

DEF.  20. — Verse  consists  of  words  arranged  in  measured 
lines,  constituting  a  regular  succession  of  accented  and 
unaccented  Syllables. 

OBS. — Verse  is  used  in  Poetry.     The  different  kinds  of  Poetry  are — 
Lyric,  Charade,  Sound, 

Dramatic,  Ballad,  Pastoral, 

Epic,  Epigram,  Elegiac, 

Didactic,  Epitaph,  Madrigal. 

DEF.  21. — LTEIC  POETRY  is — as  its  name  imports — 
such  as  may  be  set  to  music.  It  includes  the  "  Ode"  and 
the  "  Song." 

OBS.  1.— Lyric  Poetry  is  of  three  kinds,  the  Ode,  the  Hymn,  and 
the  Song. 

OBS.  2.— The  Ode  is  generally  longer  than  the  other  kinds  of  Lyrio 
Poetry,  and  is  often  irregular  in -its  structure. 

Familiar  Examples.—1 '  Alexander' s  Feast, ' '      by  Dryden. 
1 l  Ode  on  the  Passions, "    "  Collins. 
"Immortality,"  "    Wordsworth. 

^8^  Let  the  Pupil  give  other  Examples. 


292  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR  —  PART  IV. 

OBS.  3.  —  The  Hymn  is  shorter,  and  is  arranged  in  regular  stanzas 
adapted  to  sacred  worship. 

Familiar  Examples*  —  "The  Psalms  and  Hymns"  in  general  use  in 
Christian  congregations. 

OBS.  4.  —  The  Song  is  also  short,  but  is  more  varied  in  its  stanzas, 
and  is  adapted  to  secular  uses. 

Familiar  Examples.  —  "  Irish  Melodies,"  by  Moore. 

"Songs,"  "  Barry  Cornwall. 

3^**  Let  the  Pupil  give  other  Examples. 

REM.  —  English  Lyric  Poetry  makes  use  of  Bhyme  exclusively. 

DEF.  22.  —  EPIC  POETRY  is  a  historical  representation  — 
real  or  fictitious  —  of  great  events. 

HEM.  —  Epic  Poetry  may  employ  either  rhyme  or  blank  verse. 

EXAMPLES.  —  Rhyme.  —  "Lady  of  the  Lake,"  by  Scott. 

"Curse  of  Kehama,"    "  Southey. 
Blank  Verse.  —  "  Paradise  Lost,"  "  Milton. 

"  Course  of  Time  ,  "        '  *  Pollock. 

^i**  Let  the  Pupil  give  other  Examples. 

DEF.  23.  —  DRAMATIC  POETRY  is  a  poem  descriptive  of 
scenes,  events,  or  character,  and  is  adapted  to  the  stage. 


EXAMPLES.—  Tragic.  —  "Othello,"  by  Shakspeare. 

Comic.—11  All's  Well  That  Ends  Well,"  by  Sha'kspeare. 

J^T  Let  the  Pupil  give  other  Examples. 

DEF.  24.  —  DIDACTIC  POETRY  is  that  style  adapted  to  the 
inculcation  of  science  or  duty. 

EXAMPLES.  —  "  Pleasures  of  the  Imagination,"  by  Akenside. 
"Art  of  Preserving  Health,"          "  Armstrong. 

$gi**  Let  the  Pupil  give  other  Examples. 

DEF.  25.  —  The  CHARADE  is  a  short  poem,  usually  in  a 
Lyrical  form,  containing  a  ^Riddle. 


•VERSIFICATION.  293 

DEF.  26.— An  EPIGRAM  is  a  witty  poem,  short,  and 
generally  abounding  in  ludicrous  expressions. 

EXAMPLE. — "  Swans  sing  before  they  die  ;  'twere  no  bad  thing 
Should  certain  persons  die  before  they  sing." 

DEF.  27. — An  EPITAPH  is  a  poetic  inscription  to  the 
memory  of  some  departed  person. 

EXAMPLE. — ' '  Underneath  this  stone  doth  lie 
As  much  beauty  as  could  die, 
"Which  in  life  did  harbor  give 
To  more  virtue  than  doth  live." — Jonson. 

DEF.  28. — ELEGIAC  POETRY  is  that  species  used  to  com- 
memorate the  death  of  some  person. 

EXAMPLES. — "Lysidas,"  by  Milton. 
"Elegy,"       "  Gray. 

DEF.  29. — The  SONNET  is  a  Poem  devoted  to  the  de- 
velopment of  a  single  thought,  in  rhyming  verse  of  a 
peculiar  structure,  and  generally  of  fourteen  lines. 

DEF.  30. — The  MADRIGAL  is  a  Lyric  Poem  of  an  amatory 
nature,  and  of  a  lively  species  of  verse. 

DEF.  31. — PASTORAL  POETRY  relates  to  rural  life,  and  is 
generally  a  song. 

EXAMPLES. — "Rural  Sports,"  by  Gay. 

"The  Falls  of  the  Passaic,"  by  Irving. 

DEF.  32. — The  BALLAD  is  a  Lyric  Poem,  of  a  Narrative 
cast,  in  a  simple  or  rude  style  of  composition. 

EXAMPLE. — "Battle  of  Brunnenberg,"  by  Ferris. 

VERSIFICATION. 

DEF.  1 . — VERSIFICATION  is  the  art  of  making  verse — i.  e., 
the  proper  arrangement  of  a  certain  number  of  Syllables 
in  a  line. 

25* 


204:  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR PART   IV. 

N"OTE. — There  are  two  prominent  distinctions  in  Verse, 

1.  Blank  Verse. 

2.  Rhyme. 

DEF.  2. — BLANK  VERSE  consists  in  measured  lines 
usually  of  ten  Syllables  each,  and  which  may  or  may  not 
end  with  the  same  sound. 

EXAMPLE. — "  'Tis  midnight's  holy  hour ;  and  silence  now 
Is  brooding,  like  a  gentle  spirit,  o'er 
The  still  and  pulseless  world.     Hark  !  on  the  winds 
The  bell's  deep  tones  are  swelling  ;  'tis  the  knell 
Of  the  departed  year." 

DEF.  3. — RHYMING  VERSE  consists  of  measured  lines, 
of  which  two  or  more  end  with  the  same  sound. 


Rhymes  successive. — "Thou  bright  glittering  star  of  even! 
Thou  gem  upon  the  brow  of  heaven ! 
Oh  !  were  this  fluttering  spirit  free, 
How  quick  'twould  spread  its  wings  to  thee  I" 
Rhymes  alternating. — "  Oh  !  sacred  star  of  evening,  tell 

In  what  unseen  celestial  sphere 
Those  spirits  of  the  perfect  dwell — 
Too  pure  to  rest  in  sadness  here." 

DEF.  4. — A  line  in  Poetry  is  technically  called  a  Verse. 
EXAMPLE. — "And  I  am  glad  that  he  has  lived  thus  long." 
REM. — Verses  are  of  different  lengths. 
DEF.  5. — A  half  verse  is  called  a  Hemistich. 

EXAMPLE.—"  I,  too,  will  hasten  back  with  lightning  speed, 
To  seek  the  hero.'' 

DEF.  6. — Two  rhyming  verses  which  complete  the  sense 
are  called  a  Couplet. 

S. — 1.  "  Look  round  our  world  ;  behold  the  chain  of  love, 

Combining  all  below  and  all  above." 
2.  "And  more  true  joy  Marcellus  exiled  feels, 
Than  Caesar  with  a  senate  at  his  heels." 


VERSIFICATION.  295 

DEF,  7. — Three  verses  which  rhyme  together  are   a 
Triplet. 

EXAMPLE. — "  So  fair,  so  sweet,  withal  so  sensitive, 

Would  that  the  little  flowers  were  born  to  live, 
Conscious  of  half  the  pleasure  which  they  give.'* 

DEF.  8. — Four  lines  or  more  are  called  a  Stanza. 

EXAMPLE. — "Full  many  a  gem  of  purest  ray  serene, 

The  dark  unfathomed  caves  of  ocean  hear ; 
Full  many  a  flower  is  born  to  blush  unseen, 
And  waste  its  sweetness  on  the  desert  air." 

NoTE.-Verses  may  end  with  j  Jgjjjj 

EXAMPLE. — "  We  come,  we  come,  a  little  band, 

As  children  of  the  nation  ; 
We  are  joined  in  heart,  we  are  joined  in  hand, 
To  keep  the  Declaration." 

REM. — In  the  above  stanza,  the  first  and  third  lines  end  with 
Rhyming  Wards — the  second  and  fourth,  with  Rhyming  Syllables. 

DEF.  9. — A  collection  of  Syllables  is  called  a  Foot. 
-A  Foot  may  cons.t  of  j 

DEF.  10. — Feet  of  two  Syllables  are  the 

Trochee first  long,  second  short —  ^ 

Iambus  . . . ,  first  short,  second  long ^  — 

Pyrrhic ....  both  short , ^  >•— ' 

Spondee . . .  .both  long 

Feet  of  three  Syllables  are  the 

Dactyl one  long  and  two  short —  ^  ^ 

Anapest two  short  and  one  long <— -  ^-  — 

Amphibrach. first  short,  second  long,  third  short.  ^  —  ^ 
Tribrach  , .. .  three  short ^  ^  ^, 

REM. — Most  English  Poetry  is  written  in  Iambic,  Trochaic,  or  Ana- 
paestic Verse. 


296  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR — PART   IV. 

TROCHAIC   TERSE. 
1.  Hexameter,  or  six  feet. 

"  On  a  |  mountain  |  stretched  be  |  neath  a  |  hoary  |  willow, 
Lay  a  shepherd  swain,  and  viewed  the  roiling  billow." 

2.  Pentameter,  or  five  feet. 

"  Rouse  him  |  like  a  |  rattling  |  peal  of  |  thunder." 

3.  Tetrameter,  or  four  feet. 

On  the  |  mountain's  |  top  ap  |  pearing, 
Lo,  the  sacred  herald  stands  t 

4.  Trimeter,  or  three  feet. 
"  How  I    love  to  |  see  thee, 
Golden  evening  sun,'* 

5.  Dimeter,  or  two  feet* 
Rich  the  |  treasure. 
Sweet  the  pleasure. 

6.  Monameter,  or  one-  foot*, 
Ringing. 
Singing. 

IAMBIC   YERSK 

1.  Six  feet. 

The  praise  |  of  Bac  |  chus  then  |  the  sweet  musi  |  cian  sung. 

2.  Five  feet. 

Oh,  I  |  have  loved  |  in  youth's  |  fair  ver  [  nal  morn, 
To  spread  |  ima  |  gina  |  tion's  wild  |  est  wing. 

3.  Four  feet. 

There  is  |  a  calm  |  for  those  |  who  weep, 
A  rest  |  for  wea  |  ry  pil  |  grims  found. 

4.  Three  feet. 

What  sought  |  they  thus  |  afar  ? 
Bright  jew  |  els  of  |  the  mine? 

5.  Two  feet. 

"I  am  |  the  grave." 

6.  One  foot. 
11  My  home." 


VEKSIFICATI01T.  297 

ANAPAESTIC    VERSE. 

1.  Four  fed. 

But  we  stead  |  fastly  gazed  |  on  the  face  |  of  the  dead. 

2.  Three  feet 

1 1  And  I  loved  |  her  the  more  |  when  I  heard 
Such  tenderness  fall  from  her  tongue." 

3.   Two  feet. 

"  For  the  night  only  draws 
A  thin  veil  o'er  the  day." 

DACTYLIC   VERSE. 

1.  Four  feet. 

Come,  ye  dis  |  consolate,  |  where'er  ye  |  languish. 

2.  Three  feet. 

Earth  has  no  |  sorrows  that  |  Heaven  can  not  |  heal. 

3.  Two  feet 

Free  from  anx  |  iety, 
Care,  and  satiety. 

4.  One  foot. 
Cheerfully, 
Fearfully. 

THE   AMPHIBRACH. 

"There  is  a  |  bleak  desert  |  where  daylight  |  grows  weary, 

Of  wasting  its  smiles  on  a  region  so  dreary. ' ' 
"With  storm-dar  |  ing  pinion  |  and  sun-ga  |  zing  eye, 

The  gray  forest  eagle  is  king  of  the  sky." 
"There's  pleasure  |  in  freedom  |  whatever  |  the  season. 

That  makes  every  object  look  lovely  and  fair." 

OBS.  1. — The  first  syllable  of  a  verse  is  sometimes  omitted. 


[    ]  "And  there  |  lay  the  ri  |  der,  distort  |  ed  and  pale, 

With  the  dew  |  on  hi*  brow  |  and  the  rust  |  on  his  mail." 


298  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR PART   IV. 

OBS.  2. — A  syllable  is  sometimes  added  to  a  line. 


"Earth  has  no  |  sorrows  that  |  Heaven  can  not  |  heal.'' 
"  A  guar  |  dian  an  |  gel  o'er    my  life  |  presid  |  ing, 
Doubling  my  pleasures  and  my  cares  dividing." 

OBS.  3. — The  different  measures  are  sometimes  combined  in  the 
same  line. 

EXAMPLES. 

"May  comes,      |    May  comes,    |  we  have  called  |  her  long, 
May  comes      |  o'er  the  moun  |  tains  with  light  |  and  song ; 
We  may  trace  |  ligr  steps  |  o'er  the  wak  |  ening  earth, 
By  the  winds  |  which  tell  |  of  the  vio  |  let's  birth." 

QBS>  4. — Sometimes  the  last  syllable  of  a  line  becomes  the  first  syl- 
lable in  the  first  foot  of  the  next. 


'  On  the  cold  |  cheek  of  death  |  smiles  and  ro  |  ses  are  blend  |  ing, 
And  beau  |  ty  immor  |  tal  awakes  |  from  the  tomb." 


FIGURES. 

s.— -Language  is  modified  in  its  structure,  style,  and 
utterance  by  the  use  of  Figures. 

DEF.  1 — A  Figure  of  speech  is  a  licensed  departure  from 
the  ordinary  structure  or  use  of  a  word  in  a  Sentence. 

OBS. — Figures  are  employed  to  give  strength,  beauty,  or  melody  to 
Language. 

^        p.  (  Grammatical  or 

rE*         19W          e  (  Rhetorical. 

DEF.  2. — A  Grammatical  Figure  is  a  deviation  from  the 
ordinary  form  or  office  of  a  word  in  a  Sentence. 

DEF.  3. — A  Rhetorical  Figure  is  a  deviation  from  the 
ordinary  application  of  words  in  the  expression  of  thought. 


VERSIFICATION. 

I.  FIGURES  MODIFYING  TIIE  FORMS  or  WORDS 
These  are  called — 

Aphceresis,  Synceresis, 

Prosthesis,  Diaeresis, 

Apocope,  Syncope, 

Paragoge,  Tmesis. 

DEF.  4. — Apliazresis  allows  the  elision  of  one  or  more 
of  the  first  letters  of  a  word. 

EXAMPLES. 

1.  "'Mid  scenes  of  confusion." 

2.  "  And  therefore  thou  may'st  think  my  'havior  light." — Juliet. 

3.  "  What !  have  you  let  the  false  enchanter  'scape  T' — Milton. 

DEF.  5. — Prosthesis  allows  a  syllable  to  be  prefixed  to 
a  word. 

EXAMPLES. 

1.  "  Else  would  a  maiden  blush  Repaint  my  cheek." — Juliet. 

2.  "  Let  fall  adown  his  silver  beard  some  tears." — Thomson. 

3.  "  The  great  archangel  from  his  warlike  toil 

/Swrceased, ' '  — Milton, 

DEF.  6. — Apocope  allows  the  elision  of  one  or  more  of 
the  final  letters  of  a  word. 

EXAMPLES. 

1.  "  And  that  is  spoke. .  with  such  a  dying  fall.7' 

2.  "  Tho'  the  whole  loosened  Spring  around  her  blows." 

3.  "  T*  whom  th'  archangel." — Milton. 

DEF.  7. — Paragoge  allows  a  syllable  to  be  annexed  to  a 
word. 

EXAMPLES. 

1.  "  Wi  thou  tew  trump  was  proclamation  made." — Thomson. 

2.  u  Nor  deem  that  kind/y  nature  did  him  wrong." — Bryant* 

DEF.  8. — Synceresis  allows  two  syllables  to  become  one. 
EXAMPLES. — Extra  session — ordinary  session — extraordinary  session. 

DEF.  9.—Diceresis  separates  two  vowels  into  different 
syllables. 

EXAMPLES. — Cooperate — re  T  terate . 


300  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR PART   IV. 

DEF.  10. — Syncope  allows  one  or  more  letters  to  be 
taken  from  the  middle  of  a  word. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.   "  Or  serve  they  as  a  fimcry  verge  to  bind 

2.  The  fluid  skirts  of  that  same  wat'ry  cloud, 

3.  Lest  it  again  dissolve  and  show'r  the  earth.' ' — Milton. 

DEF.  11. — Tmesis  allows  a  word  to  be  inserted  between 
the  parts  of  a  compound  word. 

EXAMPLE. — "How  MUCH  soever  we  may  desire  it." 

OBS. — Sometimes  two  figures  are  combined  in  the  same  word. 

EXAMPLE. — "  Ah  !  whence  is  that  sound  which  now  larums  his  ear  ?" 

II.  FIGURES  MODIFYING  THE  OFFICES  OF  WORDS. 
These  are  called 

RHETORICO-GRAMMATICAL  FIGURES. 

They  are — 

Ellipsis,  Syllipsis, 

Pleonasm,  Enallage. 

nyperbaton. 

DEF.  12. — Ellipsis  allows  the  omission  of  one  or  more 
words  necessary  to  complete  the  grammatical  construc- 
tion, when  custom  has  rendered  them  unnecessary  to 
complete  the  sense. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  "  Thou  art  perched  aloft  on  the  beetling  crag, 
And  the  waves  are  white  below  [    ]." 

2.  "  Unnumbered  systems  [    ],  suns,  and  worlds, 

Unite  to  worship  thee, 

3.  While  thy  majestic  greatness  fills 

Space  [    ],  Time  [    ],  Eternity." 

DEF.  13. — Pleonasm  allows  the  introduction  of  words 
not  necessary  to  complete  the  grammatical  construction  of 
a  Sentence. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.   "The  moon  herself  is  lost  in  heaven." 

2.  "I  sit  me  down,  a  pensive  hour  to  spend." 


VERSIFICATION.  301 

DEF.  14. — Syllipsis  allows  a  word  to  be  used  not  in  its 
literal  sense. 

EXAMPLE. — "  And  there  lay  the  steed,  with  his  nostril  all  wide." 

DEF.  15. — Enallage  allows  the  use  of  one  word  for 
another  of  similar  origin,  or  the  substitution  of  one  modi- 
fication for  another. 

EXAMPLE. — "  A  world  devote  to  universal  wreck." 

DEF.  16. — Hyperbaton  allows  the  transposition  of  words 
in  a  Sentence. 

EXAMPLE. — "His  voice  SUBLIME,  is  heard  afar." 

III.  FIGURES  OF  RHETORIC. 
They  are — 


Simile, 
Metaphor, 
Allegory, 
Personification. 
Irony, 
Hyperbole, 

Antithesis, 
Metonomy, 
Synecdoche, 
Apostrophe, 
Interrogation, 
Exclamation, 

Vision, 
Paralepsis, 
Climax, 
Anti-  Climax, 
Alliteration. 

DEF.  17. — A  Simile  is  a  direct  comparison. 

EXAMPLE. — "The  Assyrian  came  down  like  the  wolf  on  the  fold." 

DEF.  18. — A  Metaphor  is  an  indirect  comparison. 

EXAMPLE. — "There  is  a  tide  in  the  affairs  of  men, 

Which,  taken  at  the  flood,  leads  on  to  fortune." 

DEF.  19. — An  Allegory  is  an  extended  metaphor,  by 
which  a  narration,  real  or  fictitious,  is  made  to  convey  an 
analogous  truth  or  fiction. 

EXAMPLE. — "  Eternity's  vast  ocean  lies  before  thee  ; 

There,  there,  Lorenzo,  thy  Clarissa  sails ; 
Give  thy  mind  sea-room  ;  keep  it  wide  of  Earth — 
That  rock  of  souls  immortal ;  cut  thy  cord  ; 
Weigh  anchor  ;  spread  thy  sails  ;  call  every  wind  ; 
Eye  thy  great  Pole-star  ;  make  the  land  of  life." 
26 


302  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR — PART   IV. 

DEF.  20. — Personification  represents  inanimate  things 
as  being  endowed  with  life  and  volition. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  "  And  old  Experience  learns  too  late 

That  all  is  vanity  below." 
2.  "Joy  has  her  tears,  and  Transport  has  her  death." 

DEF.  21. — Irony  makes  a  sentence  convey  a  meaning 
the  opposite  of  its  ordinary  sense. 

EXAMPLE. — "  And  we,  brave  men,  are  satisfied 

If  we  ourselves  escape  his  sword." 

DEF.  22. — Hyperbole  exaggerates  the  truth. 

EXAMPLE. —  "  "With  fury  driven, 

The  waves  mount  up,  and  wash  the  face  of  heaven." 

DEF.  23. — Antithesis  contrasts  two  or  more  things  with 

each  other. 

• 
EXAMPLES. — 1.   "  Zealous  though  modest,  innocent  though  free." 

2.  "  By  honor  and  dishonor,  by  evil  report  and  good  report, 
as  deceivers,  and  yet  true," 

DEF.  24. — Metonomy  puts  one  thing  for  another — 
The  cause  for  the  effect, 
The  effect  for  the  cause, 
The  container  for  the  thing  contained, 
An  attribute  or  quality  for  the  thing  or  person. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  "  Shall  the  sword  devour  for  ever  ?" 

2.  "Thy  hand,  unseen,  sustains  the  poles." 

3.  "His  ear  is  ever  open  to  their  cry." 

4.  "I  am  much  delighted  in  reading  Homer," 

5.  "  He  has  returned  to  his  cups  again." 

6.  "I'll  plunge  thee  headlong  in  the  whelming  tide." 

DEF.  25. — Synecdoche  puts  a  part  for  a  whole,  and  a 
whole  for  a  part. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  "When  the  tempest  stalks  abroad, 

Seek  the  shelter  of  my  roof. ' ' 
2.  "  Oh  !  ever  cursed  be  the  hand 

That  wrought  this  ruin  in  the  land." 


VERSIFICATION.  303 

DEF.  26. — Apostrophe  is  a  sudden  transition  from  the 
subject  of  a  discourse  to  address  a  person  or  thing,  present 
or  absent. 

EXAMPLE. — "This  is  a  tale  for  fathers  and  for  mothers.  Young  men 
and  young  women,  you  can  not  understand  it." — E.  Everett. 

DEF.  27. — Interrogation  expresses  an  assertion  in  the 
form  of  a  question. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  "  Looks  it  not  like  the  king  ?" 

2.  "  He  that  formed  the  eye,  shall  he  not  see  ?" 

DEF.  28. — Exclamation  expresses  a  sudden  or  intense 
emotion. 

EXAMPLE.— "O  liberty!  0  sound  once  delightful  to  every  Roman 
ear!" 

DEF.  29. —  Vision  represents  past  or  future  time  as 
present  to  the  view. 

EXAMPLE. — "  I  see  them  on  their  winding  way, 

About  their  ranks  the  moonbeams  play." 

DEF.  30. — Paralepsis  is  a  figure  by  which  a  main  truth 
is  expressed  incidentally,  or  with  a  professed  effort  of  the 
speaker  to  conceal  it. 

EXAMPLE. — "  Without  alluding  to  your  habits  of  intemperance,  I  would 
ask,  how  can  you  attempt  to  justify  your  present  inattention  to  busi- 
ness and  the  neglect  of  your  family  ?" 

DEF.  31. —  Climax  is  that  form  of  expression  by  which 
the  thoughts  are  made  to  rise  by  successive  gradations. 

EXAMPLE. — "He  aspired  to  be  the  highest ;  above  the  people,  above 
the  authorities,  above  the  LAWS,  above  his  COUNTRY." 

DEF.  32. — Anti-Climax  is  the  opposite  of  the  climax. 

EXAMPLE. — "How  has  expectation  darkened  into  anxiety,  anxiety 
into  dread,  and  dread  into  despair."—  Irving. 


304:  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR — PART   IV. 

DEF.  33. — Alliteration  is  the  repetition  of  the  same  let- 
ter at  the  beginning  of  two  or  more  words  immediately 
succeeding  each  other. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.   "  Up  the  high  hill  he  leaves  a  Auge,  round  stone." 

2.  "He  carves  with  classic  chisel  the  Corinthian  capital 
that  crowns  the  column." 


QUESTIONS   FOR   REVIEW. 

PAGE. 

282.— What  is  PROSODY  ? 

Name  the  different  marks  of  punctuation. 

When  is  a  Comma  properly  used  ? 

When  a  Semicolon  ?—&  Colon  ?— a  Period? 

When  is  a  Dash  properly  used  ? — an  Exclamation  ? 

When  do  we  use  a  mark  of  Interrogation  ? 
288. — Name  the  GRAMMATICAL  SIGNS. 

What  is  an  Apostrophe  ? — a  Quotation  ? — a  Hyphen  ? 

What  is  a  Bracket  ? — a  Parenthesis  ? — Reference  marks  ? 

What  is  a  Brace  ? — Marks  of  Inflection  ? — Measures  ? 

What  is  a  Caret  ?—&  Dieresis  ?— an  Index .?— a  Section  ? 

What  is  a  Paragraph  ? — How  are  Paragraphs  commonly  indi- 
cated ? 

What  is  Accent  ?— What  is  Emphasis  ? 
291. — What  is  COMPOSITION ? — What  are  the  varieties? 

What  is  Prose  ? — Name  the  various  kinds  of  Prose. 

What  is  Verse  9— When  properly  used  ? 

Name  and  define  the  various  kinds  of  Poetry. 
294. — What  is  VERSIFICATION  ? 

What  are  the  distinctions  of  verse  ? 

What  is  Blank  Verse  ?— What  is  Rhyming  Verse  ? 

What  is  a  Verse  ?— a  Hemistich  ?— a  Couplet  ? 

What  is  a  Triplet  ?— What  is  a  Stanza  ? 

What  is  a  Foot  ? — A  Foot  may  have  how  many  Syllables  ? 

What  are  the  Feet  of  two  Syllables  ?— of  three  Syllables  ? 

What  is  'a  Trochee  ?— an  Iambus  ? — a  Pyrrhic  ? — a  Spondee  ? 

What  is  a  Dactyl  ?— an  Anapest  ? — an  Amphibrach  ? — a  Tribrach  ? 

What  measures  are  comrnojaly  used  in  English  Poetry  ? 
298. — What  is  a  FIGURE  OF  SPEECH  ? — Why  are  they  used  ? 

What  is  a  Grammatical  Figure  ? — a  Rhetorical  Figure  ? 

Name  the  figures  which  modify  the  forms  of  Words. 


APPENDIX. 


EEM. — Orthography  properly  belongs  to  a  separate  branch  of  the 
Science  of  Language.  The  following  Synopsis  is  given,  chiefly  to  pre- 
sent the  Author's  views  as  to  the  proper  method  of  presenting  this 
subject. 

DEF. — Orthography  is  that  branch  of  the  Science  of 
Language  which  treats  of  LETTERS — their  forms,  their 
offices,  and  their  combinations  in  the  structure  of  WOKDS. 

OBS.  1 . — The  English  Language  has  twenty-six  Letters,  which,  are 
distinguished  by  their  forms  and  by  their  uses. 

OBS.  2. — The  various  forms  of  letters  are  exhibited  in  the  following 
table  : 

EOMAN — Capitals. 


A 

B 

C 

D 

E 

F 

G 

H       I 

J 

K 

L 

M 

N 

0 

P 

Q 

R 

S 

T 

U       V 

w 

X 

Y 

Z 

Small. 

a 

b 

c 

d 

e 

f 

g 

h       i 

j 

k 

I 

m 

n 

o 

P 

* 

r 

s 

t 

u       v 

w 

X 

y 

z 

ITALIC  —  Capitals. 

A 

B 

C 

D 

.# 

J7 

£ 

//      / 

J 

K 

L 

I/ 

N 

0 

P 

Q 

72 

£ 

T, 

U      V 

W 

X 

Y 

Z 

Small. 

a 

b 

c 

d 

e 

/ 

9 

h        i 

j 

k 

I 

m 

n 

0 

P 

2 

r 

5 

t 

u        v 

w 

x 

y 

z 

OLD  ENGLISH  —  Capitals. 

& 

as 

<£ 

23 

33 

IF 

(£ 

3%     K 

S 

B 

3L 

ffl 

N 

<D 

13 

c& 

n 

S 

K 

n    v 

ra 

X 

sr 

Z 

Small. 

n 

i) 

c 

tl 

e 

f 

a 

D      t 

I 

It 

i 

m 

n 

0 

P 

ft 

r 

0 

t 

,11       b 

b) 

*' 

2> 

j 

,26* 

306  APPENDIX. 

OBS.  1. — Roman  letters  are  in  most  common  use  in  the  English 
language. 

Italic  Letters  are  used  in  words  of  special  importance,  and  sometimes 
in  Sentences. 

In  the  Sacred  Scriptures,  words  supplied  by  the  translators  to  com- 
plete the  construction  of  Sentences  according  to  the  English  idiom,  are 
printed  in  Italics. 

<0>i&  2Snglis][)  Letters  are  used  for  variety  or  ornament — in  title- 
pages,  etc. 

OBS.  2. — The  small,  or  "lower  case,"  Letters  are  used  in  forming 
most  Words,  and  constitute  the  appropriate  form  of  letters  now  used 
in  printed  works — with  the  following  EXCEPTIONS,  which  provide  for 
the  use  of 

CAPITAL   LETTERS. 

RULE  1. — A  word  should  begin  with  a  capital  letter 
when  it  is  the  first  word  of  a  distinct  proposition. 

RULE  2. — When  it  is  a  Proper  Name,  or  a  word  imme- 
diately dervived  from  a  Proper  Name. 

EXAMPLES.  — Boston— William — American . — Yermonter. 

RULE  3. — When  it  is  a  name  or  appellation  of  the 
Supreme  Being. 

EXAMPLES. — God — Saviour — Holy  Spirit — Lord — Omnipotent. 
RULE  4. — When  it  is  the  first  word  of  a  line  of  poetry. 

EXAMPLE. — "Twinkle,  twinkle,  little  star, 
How  I  wonder  what  you  are ! 
Up  ahove  the  world  so  high, 
Like  a  diamond  in  the  sky." 

RULE  5. — When  it  is  a  principal  word  in  a  title  of  a 
book  or  office,  and  sometimes  when  it  is  a  word  of  special 
importance,  or  used  technically. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  "  Wilferd's  History  of  the  United  States." 

2.  "  Burke  on  the  Sublime  and  Beautiful." 

3.  "The  Subject  of  a  Verb  should  not  take  the  plae* 

of  the  Object." 


CAPITAL   LET1ERS.  807 

RULE  6. — When  it  commences  a  direct  quotation. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.   "The  footman,  in  his  usual  phrase, 

Comes  up  with  *  Madam,  dinner  stays. '  "  i 

2.  "  Wo  to  him  that  saith  unto  the  wood,  '  Awake.'  " 

RULE  7. — When  it  constitutes  the  Pronoun  "I"  or  the 
Exclamation  "  O." 

EXAMPLE. — "  0,  I  have  loved  in  youth's  fair  vernal  morn, 
To  spread  Imagination's  wildest  wing." 

RULE  8. — When  it  is  a  Common  Noun  fully  personified. 

EXAMPLES. — 1.  "  Sure  I  Fame's  trumpet  hear." — Oowley. 
2.  "Here  Strife  and  Faction  rule  the  day." 

OBS. — Letters  are  of  various  sizes,  and  have  their  corresponding 
appropriate  names.  The  varieties  of  type  in  most  common  use  are  the 
following  : 

1.  Pica.— ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUY 
WXYZ.     abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz. 

2.  Small  Pica.— ABCDEFGffl  JKLMNOPQRSTU 
VWXYZ.     abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz. 

3.  Long  Primer.— ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUV 
WXYZ.     abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz. 

4.  Bourgeois.— ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ.    ab 

cdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz. 

5.  Brevier.—  ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQBSTUVWXYZ.     abcdefghijk 

1m  nopqrstu  v  wxy  z . 

6.  Minion.— ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ.     abcdefghijklmn 

opqrstuvwxyz. 

7.  Nonpareil.— ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQESTUVWXYZ.    abcdefghijklmnop 

qrstuvwxj-z. 

8.  Agate.— ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUYWXYZ.     abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzr- 

9.  PearZ.— ABCDEPGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ.     abcdefghijklmnopqrBtuvwxyz. 

ubod«fghijUmnopqrstuv?rxys. 


308  APPENDIX. 

THE  OPTICES  OF  LETTERS. 

NOTE. — Letters  constitute  the  Elements  of  Words,  and, 
like  the  Elements  of  Sentences  and  Phrases,  are  distin- 
guished as  Principal  Elements  and  Adjunct  Elements. 

DEF.  1. — The  Principal  Elements  of  a  Word  are  the 
Letters  which  indicate  the  principal  sound.  They  are 
called  VOWELS. 

EXAMPLES. — a  in  mate — e  in  me — oi  in  toil — ou  in  sownd — a  in  hat — 
e  in  met — OR  in  aphceresis — ce,  in  subpoena. 

DEF.  2. — The  Adjuncts  of  a  Word  are  the  Letters  pre- 
fixed or  added  to  the  Principal  Elements  to  modify  their 
sound.  They  are  called  CONSONANTS. 

EXAMPLES.— ra  in  mate,  me—t  in  mate,  dme — I  in  toil,  Zame — c  in 
cider,  cane— h  in  hat,  7zate— s  in  aphagresis,  sound — v  in  vile,  twelve — 
p  in  post,  happy. 

REM. — For  convenience  in  articulation,  most  words  are  divided  into 
Parts,  called  Syllables;  hence, 

DEF.  3. — A  Syllable  is  a  whole  Word,  or  such  part  of  a 
Word  as  is  uttered  by  one  impulse  of  the  voice. 

EXAMPLES. — Man — man-ly — man-li-ncss — un-man-ly. 

DEF.  4. — When  a  Word  has  but  one  Principal  Element, 
it  is  pronounced  by  one  impulse  of  the  voice,  and  is  then 
called  a  Monosyllable. 

EXAMPLES. — Hand — fall — me — so — strength. 

DEF.  5. — When  a  Word  has  two  Principal  Elements,  it 
requires  two  articulations,  and  is  then  called  a  Dissyllable. 

EXAMPLES. — Handsome — falling — strengthen — holy. 

DEF.  6. — When  a  Word  has  three  Principal  Elements,  it 
requires  three  articulations,  and  is  then  called  a  Polysyllable. 

OBS.  1. — Generally  a  Word  has  as  many  Syllables  as  It  has  Principal 
Parts. 


ABBREVIATIONS.  309 

OBS.  2.  —Two  Letters  may  form  one  Principal  Element  of  a  Word 
•when  they  are  placed  together  and  combine  to  form  one  sound. 

EXAMPLES.  —  oi  in  toil  —  ou  in  sound—  ai  in  fair. 

OBS.  3.—  A  Letter  ordinarily  used  as  a  Vowel  is  sometimes  added  to 
a  Syllable  or  a  Word,  to  modify  the  Sound  Of  other  Letters,  and  is  then 
an  Adjunct. 

EXAMPLES.  —  e  in  time  —  y  in  they  —  i  in  claim. 

OBS.  4.  —  One  Letter  is  often  made  to  represent  the  Sound  of  another. 

EXAMPLES.  —  e  represents  a  in  they  —  e  represents  in  her  —  i  represents 
u  iri  sir. 

OBS.  5.  —  In  written  Language,  many  Letters  are  used  which  are  not 
sounded  in  spoken  Language.  Such  are  called  Silent  Letters. 

EXAMPLES.  —  Hynm  —  thum&  —  eight  —  phthisic. 

OBS.  6.  —  One  or  more  of  the  Letters  constituting  a  Word  are  some- 
times used  as  the  representative  of  that  word.  These  are  called 

ABBREVIATIONS. 

The  most  common  abbreviations  are  the  following  — 
A.  C  ......  Before  Christ  ____  from  the  Latin.  .Ante  Christum. 

A.  B  ......  Bachelor  of  Arts  ...........  "...  .  Artium  Baccalaureus. 

A.  D  ......  In  the  year  of  our  Lord  ____  "  ____  Anno  Domini. 

(  Master  of  Arts  ............  "  ____  Artium  Magister. 

A.  M  —  V  In  the  year  of  the  world.  .  .  "  ____  Anno  Mundi. 

(  In  the  forenoon  ............  "  ____  Ante  Meridiem, 

B.  D  ......  Bachelor  of  Divinity  .......  "  ____  Baccalaureus  Divinitatia. 

D.  D  ......  Doctor  of  Divinity  ........  "  ____  Doctor  Divinitatis. 

e.  g  ........  For  example  ...............  "  ----  Exempli  gratia. 

i.  e  ........  That  is  ....................  "  ----  Id  est. 

LL.D  ......  Doctor  of  Laws  ............  "  ____  Legum  Doctor. 

L.  S  .......  Place  of  the  Seal  ..........  "  ----  Locus  Sigilli. 

Messrg  ____  Gentlemen  .............  French.  .Messieurs. 

M.  D  ......  Doctor  of  Medicine  .......  Latin.  .Medicinae  Doctor. 

MS..  .  ;  .  .  .  .Manuscript  ................  "  ----  Scriptum  Manus. 

N.  B  ......  Take  notice  ...............  "  ----  Nota  Bene. 

Afternoon  ................  "  ----  Post  Meridiem. 


p  M 

v.  M  ----  -  postmaster. 

P.  S  .......  Postscript  ................  "  ----  Post  Scriptum. 

S.  T.  D  ____  Doctor  of  Theology  ........  "  ----  Sanctoe  Theologize  Doctor. 


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